The McMahon Line- a Century of Discord
Page 43
8.Martin Jacques, When China Rules the World, Delhi: Penguin Group, 2009, p. 298.
9.Ibid., p. 299.
10.Nancy Jetly, India-China Relations 1947-1977, New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1979, p. 251.
11.Wing Commander (Retd) R. V. Parasnis, Remembering a War, The 1962 India-China Conflict, Bharat Rakshak, A Consortium of Indian Defence websites, 5 December 2002, p. 3.
12.Ibid.
13.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, New Delhi: Penguin Group, 2010, p. 308.
14.Lt Gen. B.M. Kaul, Untold Story, New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1967, p. 280.
15.M.L. Sali, India-China Border Dispute, New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation, 1998, p. 74.
16.John W. Garver, Protracted Contest, p. 50.
17.Amar Kaur Jasbir Singh, Himalayan Triangle, p. 41.
18.Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers, London: Barrie & Rockliff, The Cresset Press, 1969, pp. 226–27.
19.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, Bombay: The Tulsi Shah Enterprises, 1968, p. 112.
20.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, p. 107.
21.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, p. 72.
22.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, p. 27.
23.B. N. Mullik, The Chinese Betrayal, New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1971, pp. 196–99.
24.Ibid., p.206.
25.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, p. 167.
26.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, p. 138.
27.Ibid.
28.Ashok Karnik, ‘Intelligence An Insider’s View’, http://freedomfirst.in/issue/articles.aspx?id=8453, p. 3.
29.Verrier Elwin, A Philosophy for NEFA, Itanagar: Government of Arunachal Pradesh, 2006, p. 3.
30.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, p. 292.
18. Disputed Areas in the Ladakh and Central Sectors
1.A.G. Noorani, India-China Boundary Problem 1846-1947, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 113–16.
2.Xuecheng Liu, ‘The Sino Indian Border Dispute and Sino-Indian Relations’, Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1994, p. 70, The author has stated that in 1938 British and Chinese representatives discussed the border question and it was brought out by the Chinese representative General Jiang that ‘the Chinese did not agree to negotiate the 1899 border proposal, mainly because they did not want to accept the British annexation of Hunza, not because they disagreed with the proposed boundary alignment.’ The fact however remains that the Chinese did not accept the 1899 boundary proposal and the offer was not on the table thereafter.
3.Ibid.
4.H. N. Kaul, India-China Boundary in Kashmir, New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 2003, pp. 17–19.
5.Peace Treaty between the Ruler of Jammu, The Emperor of China and the Lama Guru of Lhasa, 1842. (Appendix 1)
6.A.G. Noorani, India-China Boundary Problem 1846-1947, p. 23.
7.Ibid., p. 24.
8.Xuecheng Liu, The Sino-Indian Border Dispute and Sino-Indian Relations, p. 67.
9.P.C. Chakravarti, The Evolution of India’s Northern Borders, Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1969, p. 151.
10.Xuecheng Liu, The Sino-Indian Border Dispute and Sino-Indian Relations, pp. 6–7.
11.Gondker Narayan Rao, The Indo-China Border: A Reappraisal, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1968, pp. 14–32.
12.Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru addressing Parliament on 12 September 1959.
13.P.C. Chakravarti, The Evolution of India’s Northern Borders, p. 94.
14.Ibid., p.96.
15.Ibid.
19. Hurtling Towards the Border War
1.George Ginsburg and Michiel Mathos, Communist China and Tibet: The First Dozen Years, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1964, p. 210.
2.Henry Kissinger, On China, Delhi: Penguin Books, 2011, p. 25.
3.B. N. Mullik, The Chinese Betrayal, New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1971, p. 148.
4.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, Bombay: The Tulsi Shah Enterprises, 1968, p. 138.
5.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, New Delhi: The Penguin Group, 2010, p. 115.
6.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, pp. 17–18.
7.Government of India, White Paper I (1954-1959), p. 77.
8.Ibid., p. 77–8.
9.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2014, p. 129.
10.Lorenz Luthi, Sino-Soviet Split, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2008, pp. 158–60.
11.Henry Kissinger, On China, p. 181.
12.Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, New Delhi: Natraj Publishers, 1970, p. 164; John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001, p. 102.
13.Dorothy Woodman, Himalayan Frontiers, London: Barrie & Rockliff, The Cresset Press, 1969, p. 305; see also People’s Daily, Peking, 1 February, 1960.
14.Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating for India, New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2006, p.78.
15.Nevill Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 164; and The Hindu, 26 April 1960.
16.John W. Garver, Protracted Contest Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, p. 100.
17.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, pp. 132–3.
18.Henry Kissinger, On China, p. 187.
19.Natwar Singh, Daily Mail, London, 19 March 2014.
20.Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating for India, New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2006, p. 83.
21.Ibid., p. 84.
22.Ibid., p. 25.
23.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, pp. 134–35.
24.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, p. 32.
25.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, p. 114.
26.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, p. 117.
27.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, p.121.
28.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, p. 138.
29.Maj. Gen. D. K. Palit, VrC, War in High Himalaya, London: Lancer International C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1991, p. 103.
30.Ibid., p. 104.
31.Ibid., p. 103.
32.Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, p. 255.
33.Maj. Gen. D. K. Palit, VrC, War in High Himalaya, p. 104.
34.The Times, London, 23 September 1962; and later confirmed to the press by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru before leaving for Colombo on 13 October 1962; see also D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, p. 50.
35.Lt Gen. B.M. Kaul, Untold Story, New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1967, p. 365.
36.Brig. J. P. Dalvi, Himalayan Blunder, Dehra Dun: Nataraj Publishers, 1969, pp. 292–93.
37.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, p. 162.
38.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, p.119.
39.Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating for India, p.79.
40.The Asian Age, 20 October 2012.
41.Henry Kissinger, On China, Delhi: Penguin Books, 2011, pp. 189.
42.Sun Xiao and Chen Zhibin, The Snows of the Himalayas: The True History of the China–India War, April 1991, p. 9. (This is a Chinese account of the 1962 war.)
43.Brig. J. P. Dalvi, Himalayan Blunder, p. 356.
44.Jagat S. Mehta, The Tryst Betrayed, p. 262.
20. Understanding the Middle Kingdom and the Dragon
1.Henry Kissinger, On China, Delhi: Penguin Books, 2011, p. 188.
2.Cooperation without trust: India-China relations today by Abhilash Roy Nalpathamkalam, http://in.boell.org/sites/default/files/downloads/India-China_Relations_-_Abhilash_10.10.pdf.
3.Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating for India, New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2006, p. 117.
4.Ibid., p. 118.
5.John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001, p. 37.
6.Rebecca Cairns, ‘Agrarian Reform’, Alpha History, available at 18 July 2015, at: http://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/agr
arian-reform/#sthash.zNlEswxG. dpuf (accessed on 18 July 2015).
7.K. Natwar Singh, My China Diary, New Delhi: Rupa and Co., 2009, pp. 98–9.
8.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, Bombay: The Tulsi Shah Enterprises, 1968, p. 16.
9.Neville Maxwell, India’s China War, New Delhi: Natraj Publishers, 1970, p. 93.
10.Sir Charles Bell, Portrait of The Dalai Lama, London: Collins, 1946, p. 99.
11.Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating for India, p. 55.
12.K. Subrahmanyam, ‘Strategy and Mind Games’, in India China Neighbours Strangers, New Delhi: India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 36, No 3/4, pp. 104–15.
13.John W. Garver, Protracted Contest Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, p. 118.
14.Ibid., p. 119.
15.Ibid.
16.Jagat S. Mehta, Negotiating for India, p. 79.
17.John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, p. 121.
18.Amar Kaur Jasbir Singh, Himalayan Triangle, London: The British Library, 1988, p. 41.
19.D. R. Mankekar, The Guilty Men of 1962, p. 27.
20.Bertil Lintner, ‘Not a Border DISPUTE’, India Today, 22 January 2018.
21.Henry Kissinger, On China, p. 170.
22.Claude Arpi, ‘China Becomes Red’, Part 2, http://www.friendsoftibet.org/articles/claude2.html (accessed on 26 Jun 2015).
23.Ibid.
24.Henry Kissinger, On China, Penguin Books, Delhi, 2011, p. 191.
25.Teresita C. Shaffer and Howard B. Schaffer, New Delhi: India at the Global High Table, HarperCollins Publishers, 2016, p. 267.
26.Henry Kissinger, On China, p. 26.
27.Zheng Bijian, ‘China’s Peaceful Rise to Great-Power Status’, Foreign Affairs, 84, 2005, p. 18.
28.Quoted portions have been extracted from the full text of Xi Jinping’s speech contained in chinadaily.com.en. See also Ananth Krishnan’s articles in India Today of 23 October and 6 November 2017 titled ‘The Xi Supremacy’ and ‘One Man’s Army’.
29.Francois Bougon, Inside the Mind of Xi Jinping, Chennai: Context, Westland Publications Private Limited, 2018, p. 4.
30.Luo Zhaohui, ‘A Chinese View of the New Global Order’, The Tribune, 16 Nov 2017.
21. India–China Boundary Negotiations
1.Excerpts from statements of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Xi Jinping during the Wuhan Summit in April 2018.
2.L. Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, Vol. I - Peace, London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1905, p. 534.
3.Memorandum signed by A.H. McMahon on 28 March 1914 that accompanied the notes exchanged between the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries dated 24 and 25 March 1914 respectively.
4.The Eastern Sentinel, Guwahati, 21 October 2012.
5.Lord Curzon, Frontiers, The Romanes Lecture 1907, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907, p. 49.
6.Simla Conference, Proceedings of the Third Meeting in Delhi on 12 January 1914, BLA, IOR L/P&S/10/343, Enclosure 2, p. 123.
7.Ibid.
8.Ibid., p. 197.
9.P.B. Sinha and A.A. Athale, History of The Conflict with China, 1962, New Delhi: History Division, Government of India, Ministry of Defence, 1992, p. 29.
10.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2014, p. 107.
11.Eric Hayer, The Pragmatic Dragon: China’s Grand Strategy and Boundary Settlements, Vancouver: UBC Press, 2015, p. 32.
12.Henry Kissinger, On China, Delhi: Penguin Books, pp. 217–20.
13.Ibid.
14.Wenwen Shen, ‘China and its Neighbours: Troubled Relations’, http://www.eu.asiacentre.eu/pub_details.php?pub_id=46(accessed on 01 March 2012).
15.MEA, GOI, Prime Minister’s visit to China, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2015modivisitchina/2015-05/15/content_20729162.Htm (accessed on 30 Jan 2016).
16.Pravin Sawhney and Ghazala Wahab, ‘When Narasimha Rao Visited China’, The Pioneer, 12 February 2017.
17.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, p. 215.
18.Zhang Yan, India-China Relations: Future Perspectives, New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt Ltd, 2012, p. 8.
19.Vidya Nadkarni, Strategic Partnerships in Asia, London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2010, p. 119.
20.Xinhua News Agency, Beijing, 12 April 2005.
21.D.P. Tripathi and B.R. Deepak, India-China Relations: Future Perspectives, New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd, 2012, p. 244.
22.Ibid., p. 249.
23.Xinhua News Agency, 27 March 2013.
24.Ranjit Singh Kalha, PM Modi’s Visit to China: The Myths and Realities, Institute of Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi, 25 May 2015.
22. The Way Forward
1.Ananth Krishnan, ‘Behind the War, a Genesis in Tibet’, The Hindu, 20 October 2012.
2.Ranjit Singh Kalha, ‘The Politics of Reincarnation’, https://thewire.in/124075/dalai-lama-china-india-tibet/ (accessed on 14 April 2017).
3.Jeff M. Smith, Cold Peace: China-India Rivalry in the Twenty-First Century, New York: Lexington Books, 2013, pp. 61–62.
4.Officials Report on the Boundary Question, Part 2, p. 131 (Comments on the Eastern Sector under Item 2)
5.K. Natwar Singh, My China Diary, New Delhi: Rupa Publications, 2009, p. 130.
6.Binod Singh, India China Relations: Future Perspectives, New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd, 2012, pp. 197–202.
7.Sanjay Bhattacharya, Indian Foreign Policy: Challenges and Opportunities, New Delhi: Academic Foundation, 2007, p. 697.
8.Ibid., pp. 699–700.
9.S. Kulkarni, India China Relations: Future Perspectives, New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd, 2012, p. 40.
10.John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2001, p. 377.
11.Ranjit Singh Kalha, India-China Boundary Issues, New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2014, p. 228.
12.Zheng Bijian, ‘China’s Peaceful Rise to Great-Power Status’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 18, 2005, p. 84.
13.Interaction between Indrani Bagchi and Sergei Karaganov, The Times of India, 28 February 2018.
14.General J.J. Singh, A Soldier’s General, New Delhi: HarperCollins Publishers, 2012 p. 250. The author led a tri-service delegation to China as the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and army chief.
15.Francois Bougon, Inside the Mind of Xi Jinping, Chennai: Context, Westland Publications Private Limited, 2018, pp. 176-78.
16.Ibid, p.178.
Appendix 1
Excerpts of the Peace Treaty between the Ruler of Jammu, the Emperor of China and the Lama Guru of Lhasa (1842).
As on this auspicious day, the 2nd of Assuj, Sambhat 1899 [16th or 17th September AD 1842], we, the officers of the Lhasa (Government), Kalon of Sokan and Bakshi Shajpuh, Commander of the Forces, and two officers on behalf of the most resplendent Sri Khalsaji Sahib, the asylum of the world, King Sher Singhji and Sri Maharaj Sahib Raja-i-Rajagan Raja Sahib Bahadur Raja Gulab Singhji i.e., the Mukhtar-ud-Daula Diwan Hari Chand and the asylum of vizirs, Vizir Ratnun, in a meeting called together for the promotion of peace and unity, and by profession and vows of friendship, unity and sincerity of heart and by taking oaths like those of Kunjak Sahib, have arranged and agreed that relations of peace, friendship and unity between Sri Khalsaji and Sri Maharaj Sahib Bahadur Raja Gulab Singhji and the Emperor of China and the Lama Guru of Lhasa will henceforward remain firmly established for ever; and we declare in the presence of the Kunjak Sahib that on no account whatsoever will there be any deviation, difference or departure (from this agreement). We shall neither at present nor in future have anything to do or interfere at all with the boundaries of Ladakh and its surrounding as fixed from ancient times and will allow the annual export of wool, shawls and tea by way of Ladakh according to old established custom.
Should any of the opponents of Sri Khalsaji and Sri Raja Sahib Bahadur at any time enter our territories, we shall not pay any hee
d to his words or allow him to remain in our country.
We shall offer no hindrance to traders of Ladakh who visit our territories. We shall not, even to the extent of a hair’s breadth, act in contravention of the terms that we have agreed to above regarding firm friendship, unity, the fixed boundaries of Ladakh and the keeping open of the route for wool, shawls and tea. We call Kunjak Sahib, Kairi, Lassi, Zhoh Mahan, and Khushal Choh as witnesses to this treaty.
This Treaty was signed in September, A.D. 1842. The Parties to the Treaty were on the one hand, Shri Khalsaji and Shri Maharaj Sahib Bahadur Raja Gulab Singh, and on the other hand the Emperor of China and the Lama Guru of Lhasa. By this Treaty the traditional boundary between Ladakh and Tibet was reaffirmed.
APPENDIX 2
Excerpts of the Anglo–Tibetan Treaty of 1904.
(7 September 1904)
WHEREAS doubts and difficulties have arisen as to the meaning and validity of the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890, and the Trade Regulations of 1893, and as to the liabilities of the Thibetan Government under these Agreements; and whereas recent occurrences have tended towards a disturbance of the relations of friendship and good understanding which have existed between the British Government and the Government of Thibet; and whereas it is desirable to restore peace and amicable relations, and to resolve and determine the doubts and difficulties as aforesaid, the said Governments have resolved to conclude a Convention with these objects, and the following Articles have been agreed upon by Colonel F.E. Younghusband, C.I.E., in virtue of full powers vested in him by his Britannic Majesty’s Government, and on behalf of that said Government, and Lo-Sang Gyal-Tsen, the Ga-den Ti-Rimpoche, and the representatives of the Council, of the three monasteries Se-ra, Dre-pung, and Ga-den, and of the ecclesiastical and lay officials of the National Assembly on behalf of the Government of Thibet:-
1.The Government of Thibet engages to respect the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890, and to recognize the frontier between Sikkim and Thibet, as defined in Article I of the said Convention, and to erect boundary pillars accordingly.
2.The Thibetan Government undertakes to open forthwith trade marts to which all British and Thibetan subjects shall have free right of access at Gyangtse and Gartok, as well as at Yatung.