The McMahon Line- a Century of Discord
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ARTICLE VII
In reaching a boundary settlement, the two sides shall safeguard due interests of their settled populations in the border areas.
ARTICLE VIII
Within the agreed framework of the final boundary settlement, the delineation of the boundary will be carried out utilising means such as modern cartographic and surveying practices and joint surveys.
ARTICLE IX
Pending an ultimate settlement of the boundary question, the two sides should strictly respect and observe the line of actual control and work together to maintain peace and tranquility in the border areas. The India-China Joint Working Group and the India-China Diplomatic and Military Expert Group shall continue their work under the Agreements of 7 September 1993 and 29 November 1996, including the clarification of the line of actual control and the implementation of confidence building measures.
ARTICLE X
The Special Representatives on the boundary question shall continue their consultations in an earnest manner with the objective of arriving at an agreed framework for a boundary settlement, which will provide the basis for the delineation and demarcation of the India-China boundary to be subsequently undertaken by civil and military officials and surveyors of the two sides.
ARTICLE XI
This Agreement shall come into force as of the date of signature and is subject to amendment and addition by mutual agreement in writing between the two sides.
Signed in duplicate in New Delhi on 11 April, 2005, in the Hindi, Chinese and English languages, all three texts being equally authentic.
In case of divergence, the English text shall prevail.
For the Government of the Republic of India.
For the Government of the People’s Republic of China.
New Delhi
April 11, 2005
Appendix 8
A Shared Vision for the 21st Century of the Republic of India and the People’s Republic of China.
H.E. Dr Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of the Republic of India and H.E. Mr Wen Jiabao, Premier of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, meeting in Beijing on 14 January 2008, resolve to promote the building of a harmonious world of durable peace and common prosperity through developing the Strategic and Cooperative Partnership for Peace and Prosperity between the two countries.
India and China (hereinafter referred to as the ‘two sides’) are the two largest developing nations on earth representing more than one-third of humanity. The two sides recognize that both India and China bear a significant historical responsibility to ensure a comprehensive, balanced and sustainable economic and social development of the two countries and to promote peace and development in Asia and the world as a whole.
The two sides are convinced that it is time to look to the future in building a relationship of friendship and trust, based on equality, in which each is sensitive to the concerns and aspirations of the other. The two sides reiterate that India-China friendship and common development will have a positive influence on the future of the international system. India-China relations are not targeted at any country, nor will it affect their friendship with other countries.
The two sides believe that in the new century, Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence, should continue to constitute the basic guiding principles for good relations between all countries and for creating the conditions for realizing peace and progress of humankind. An international system founded on these principles will be fair, rational, equal and mutually beneficial, promote durable peace and common prosperity, create equal opportunities and eliminate poverty and discrimination.
The two sides hold that the right of each country to choose its own path of social, economic and political development in which fundamental human rights and the rule of law are given their due place, should be respected. An international system founded in tolerance and respect for diversity will promote the cause of peace and reduce the use, or threat of use, of force. The two sides favour an open and inclusive international system and believe that drawing lines on the ground of ideologies and values, or on geographical criteria, is not conducive to peaceful and harmonious coexistence.
The two sides believe that the continuous democratization of international relations and multilateralism are an important objective in the new century. The central role of the United Nations in promoting international peace, security and development should be recognized and promoted. The two sides support comprehensive reform of the United Nations, including giving priority to increasing the representation of developing countries in the Security Council. The Indian side reiterates its aspirations for permanent membership of the UN Security Council. The Chinese side attaches great importance to India’s position as a major developing country in international affairs. The Chinese side understands and supports India’s aspirations to play a greater role in the United Nations, including in the Security Council.
The two sides support and encourage the processes of regional integration that provide mutually beneficial opportunities for growth, as an important feature of the emerging international economic system. The two sides positively view each others’ participation in regional processes and agree to strengthen their coordination and consultation within regional cooperation mechanisms including the East Asia Summit, to explore together and with other countries a new architecture for closer regional cooperation in Asia, and to make joint efforts for further regional integration of Asia. The two sides will strengthen their coordination under the framework of Asia-Europe Meeting, and are committed to strengthening and deepening Asia-Europe comprehensive partnership.
The two sides take a positive view on each other’s participation in sub-regional multilateral cooperation processes between like-minded countries, including South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation and Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The two sides hold that this does not affect either country’s existing friendly relations or cooperation with other countries.
The two sides welcome the positive facets of economic globalization, and are ready to face and meet its challenges, and will work with other countries towards balanced and mutually beneficial economic globalization. The two sides believe that the establishment of an open, fair, equitable, transparent and rule-based multilateral trading system is the common aspiration of all countries. The two sides favour the early conclusion of the Doha Development Round, placing the issues that affect the poorest of the poor at its core. The two sides are determined to strengthen their coordination with other developing countries in order to secure their shared objectives.
The two sides are convinced that it is in the common interest of the international community to establish an international energy order that is fair, equitable, secure and stable, and to the benefit of the entire international community. The two sides are committed to making joint efforts to diversify the global energy mix and enhance the share of clean and renewable energy, so as to meet the energy requirements of all countries.
The two sides welcome the opportunity for their outstanding scientists to work together in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project, which is of great potential significance in meeting the global energy challenge in an environmentally sustainable manner. As two countries with advanced scientific capabilities, the two sides pledge to promote bilateral cooperation in civil nuclear energy, consistent with their respective international commitments, which will contribute to energy security and to dealing with risks associated with climate change.
The two sides recognize the challenge that humankind faces from climate change. The two sides take the issue of climate change seriously and reiterate their readiness to join the international community in the efforts to address climate change. The two sides also stand ready to enhance technological cooperation between the two countries. The two sides welcome the outcome of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meeti
ng in Bali in December 2007 and agree to work closely during the negotiation process laid out in the Bali Road Map for long term cooperative action under the Convention. The two sides emphasize the importance of addressing climate change in accordance with principles and provisions of the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol, in particular the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
The two sides appeal to the international community to move forward the processes of multilateral arms control, disarmament and non-proliferation. Outer space is the common heritage of humankind. It is the responsibility of all space-faring nations to commit to the peaceful uses of outer space. The two sides express their categorical opposition to the weaponization and arms race in outer space.
The two sides strongly condemn the scourge of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, and in all regions of the world. The two sides pledge to work together and with the international community to strengthen the global framework against terrorism in a long-term, sustained and comprehensive manner.
The two sides believe that cultural and religious tolerance and dialogue between civilizations and peoples will contribute to overall peace and stability of our world. The two sides endorse all efforts to promote inter-civilizational and inter-faith dialogues.
The two sides believe that their bilateral relationship in this century will be of significant regional and global influence. The two sides will therefore continue to build their strategic and cooperative partnership in a positive way. As major economies in their region, the two sides believe that the strong growth in their trade and economic relations is mutually beneficial, and welcome the conclusion of a feasibility study on a Regional Trading Arrangement (RTA) between the two countries. According to the report of the Feasibility Study, an India-China RTA will be mutually advantageous. Against the backdrop of accelerating regional economic integration in Asia, the two sides agree to explore the possibility of commencing discussions on a mutually beneficial and high-quality RTA that meets the common aspirations of both countries, and will also benefit the region.
The two sides will continuously promote confidence building measures through steadily enhanced contacts in the field of defence. The two sides, therefore, welcome the commencement of the India-China Defence Dialogue and express their satisfaction at the successful conclusion of the first joint anti-terrorism training between their armed forces in December 2007. The two sides also welcome their efforts to set an example on trans-border rivers by commencing cooperation since 2002. The Indian side highly appreciates the assistance extended by China on the provision of flood season hydrological data which has assisted India in ensuring the safety and security of its population in the regions along these rivers. The two sides agree that this has contributed positively to building mutual understanding and trust.
The two sides remain firmly committed to resolving outstanding differences, including on the boundary question, through peaceful negotiations, while ensuring that such differences are not allowed to affect the positive development of bilateral relations. The two sides reiterate their determination to seek a fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable solution to the boundary question and to build a boundary of peace and friendship on the basis of the Agreement on Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the India-China Boundary Question concluded in April 2005. The Special Representatives shall complete at an early date the task of arriving at an agreed framework of settlement on the basis of this Agreement.
The Indian side recalls that India was among the first countries to recognize that there is one China and that its one China policy has remained unaltered. The Indian side states that it would continue to abide by its one China policy, and oppose any activity that is against the one China principle. The Chinese side expresses its appreciation for the Indian position.
The two sides recognize the responsibilities and obligations of the two countries to the international community. The two sides are determined to enhance mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of India and China, for the betterment of both countries and to bring about a brighter future for humanity.
(Dr Manmohan Singh)
Prime Minister of the Republic of India Beijing
14 January 2008 (Wen Jiabao)
Premier of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China
Index
Abor expedition (1911-12), consequence of the
Abor
Agnew, Vans
Anglo-Nepal Treaty of Sagauli (1815)
Anglo-Nepalese war (1814–15)
Anglo-Russian Accord (1907)
Anglo-Russian Treaty (1907)
Anglo-Sikh wars
Anglo-Tibetan talks / trade relations
Anglo-Tibetan Treaty (1904)
Asia, great turmoil in central
Assam Himalayas, surveys in tribal territories of
Assam
Ahom dynasty ruled for 600 years
Assam Frontier Tract Regulation (1880)
Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation–I
Brahmaputra basin
British mission to ascertain the presence of the Tibetans or Chinese in Assam
Hardinge, Lord, recommending a boundary between China and Tibet and the tribal territory from Bhutan
Scheduled Districts Act (1874)
tea, Commercial production of
timber in the foothills
Atisha
Bailey, Cap
Bajpai, Girija Shankar
Bell, Charles Alfred
Bhutan and Dalai Lama
Bose, Manilal
Brander, Lt Col
Britain and Russia, negotiations between
Britain’s Tibet policy
and Dalai Lama
beginning 1844, signed agreements to expand their areas of ‘control’ and ‘influence’
beginning 20th century, Britain driven by four strategic imperatives
flawed policy—acceptance of violations by Tibetans and Chinese of the treaties and agreements they had made with them
in 1913, evolved a four-pronged strategy to resolve issues related to Tibet
Of 1920s supplying British arms and ammunition
British
give effect to a new China policy relating to Tibet
Memorandum of 1912, salient features of
and Chinese, in 1893, signed a ‘set of trade regulations’
British commission on Tibet’s non-adherence to the 1890 Convention and 1893 Trade Agreement
British empire’s grand design
Buddha
Buddhism
Central Sector, border dispute in the
Chang Yin-tang
Chao Erh-feng, Gen
beheading of
China and
Britain suspect each other of wanting to grab central Tibet
Nepal
Tibet, supplementary agreement orchestrated by Teichman between the
Chinese
assertiveness in eastern Tibet propelled by their apprehension that British might make Tibet a protectorate
claimed Indian territory
expansion into Tibet
expansionist territorial claims up to 1911
grand design
British apprehensions of
have claimed Indian territory
in 1919, put forward a proposal as an attempt to ‘renegotiate’ the Simla agreement (1915)
loyalist pro-monarchy forces and the revolutionary Nationalist army soldiers at war
re-establish their hold over Tibet
strategic gains envisaged by the
Chinese People’s Liberation Army ‘liberated’ Tibet in 1951
Chinese Revolution of October 1911 by the nationalists
Zhou En-lai
Chung Ying
Colonel Younghusband’s Mission to Lhasa, 1904, by A.M.A. Hull
Council of Ministers (Kashag)
Cunningham, Cap A
Curzon, Lord
Dalai Lama, Gyatso Thubt
en, early life of thirteenth
and Bhutan
and British
and Russia
absence of the
compelled to flee in secret from the capital
first exile of the Dalai Lama
flees his palace again
flees to Sikkim
formally proclaimed Tibet’s independence (1913)
leaves Kalimpong for Lhasa (1912)
made efforts to see that Tibet was modernized
policy opposed by Choskyi Nima
also exhorting the Chinese to take charge of Tibet
monitored the Lhasa expedition
on arrival at Peking
passing away created a leadership void
remained in exile (1904 to 1909)
visit to Peking, Chinese aim with respect to
Dalai, origin of
Deva Bhoomi
Dhondup, Rai Bahadur Norbu
Dorjieff, Agvan
Elvin, Verrier
Feng Ch’ang
Frontier zone of Himalayas, terrain, rivers and the inhabitants of the
Bailey, Cap, describes
tribes treated by Tibetans and Chinese in an exploitative, shabby and often cruel way
Fu Sung-mu, Gen
author of, History of the Creation of Hsi-Kang
Gait, Sir E, author of A History of Assam
Gallagher and Robinson, authors of The Imperialism of Free Trade
Gould, Basil
Grant, Lt J.D
Gregorson, Dr, massacred by Abor tribesmen
Guru (place)
Gyantse
Gyeltsen, Lobsang, head lama of Ganden monastery
Hardinge, Lord
Henri d’Ollone, Count
Hirtzl, Sir Arthur
Hsi-Kang, history of the creation of
Huang Mu-sung, Gen
Hutuktu, Jetsun Dampa, acknowledged independence of Mongolian state
Hutuktu, Jetsun Dampa, acknowledged Tibet as an independent and sovereign state
India and
China, war over the boundary issue (1962)
Nepal, as independent countries, signed fresh treaties
Tibet
India