23. For the membership of the JDB's board, see Japan Development Bank, p. 52.
24. See "Sharp Increase in Post Office Savings Upsets Banks and Worries Bank of Japan," plus editorial,
Japan Economic Journal
, Oct. 7, 1980. See also Ministry of Finance, Tax Bureau, pp. 27, 41.
25. MITI Journalists' Club, 1956, p. 24; Endo*, 1966, pp. 17475.
26. Japan Long Term Credit Bank, pp. 45.
27. Endo, 1966, p. 179. See also Fujiwara, p. 426; and Shibagaki Kazuo, "Sangyo* kozo* no henkaku" (Change of industrial structure), in Tokyo University, 1975, 8: 88.
28. Boltho, p. 126. For figures on the size of FILP and comparisons of it with both the general account budget and GNP, see Johnson, 1978, pp. 8384.
29. For the term
Gaimu-sho
*
no demise
, see Policy Review Company, 1968, p. 118; for the term "dark age," see Akimoto, p. 39.
30. See Yamamoto's memoirs, in MITI, 1960, p. 115; Shiroyama, Aug. 1975, p. 315; and Takase Sotaro* Memorial Association, p. 1067.
31. For the number of personnel in MITI's various units, see MITI, 1975, p. 95.
32. Sahashi, 1967, pp. 79, 8788, 12026. Sahashi refers to the union he headed as the "firing committee" (
kubikiri iinkai
).
33. On the Nagayama case, see Akimi, pp. 7677, 14851; Akimoto, p. 43; MITI Journalists' Club, 1956, pp. 25859; and Nawa, Apr. 1976. Nagayama went to Showa* Oil and Mitsubishi Yuka because, as chief secretary, he had
Page 357
been closely involved in the sale of the old naval fuel depot at Yokkaichi to zaibatsu interests. Both Showa * Oil and Mitsubishi Yuka are located at Yokkaichi.
34. For the text, see MITI, 1972, pp. 4244. See also Tsuruta Toshimasa, "Sangyo* seisaku to kigyo* keiei" (Industrial policy and enterprise management), in Kobayashi, 1976, p. 138.
35. See Ueno, pp. 23, 221
et seq.
The subtitle of this book is "A Study of Economic Laws and Administration and Their Effects."
36. MITI,
Nempo
* (fiscal 1949), p. 128; (fiscal 1950), p. 148; (fiscal 1951), pp. 14549; and (fiscal 1952), p. 164.
37. Noda Nobuo, pp. 2728. On the reverse flow of American management techniques, see "U.S. Firms Worried by Productivity Lag; Copy Japan in Seeking Employee's Advice,"
Wall Street Journal
, Feb. 21, 1980; and the important follow-up letter of Martin Bronfenbrenner, "How Japanese Firms Pick Their Workers,"
Wall Street Journal
, Mar. 10, 1980.
38. Noda Nobuo, p. 24; Sakaguchi, p. 175; and the eulogy of Ishikawa, written by Deming, in Federation of Economic Organizations, pp. 26467. The 1980 recipient of the Deming Prize was the Fuji Xerox Co. See
Wall Street Journal
, Oct. 16, 1980.
39. MITI,
Nempo
(fiscal 1951), p. 148; and (fiscal 1952), p. 136.
40. Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Monograph 50, "Foreign Trade," p. 130.
41. Ariga Michiko, "Regulation of International Licensing Agreements under the Japanese Antimonopoly Law," in Doi and Shattuck, p. 289.
42. MITI,
Nempo
(fiscal 1951), p. 149.
43. MITI, 1957, pp. 1314.
44. Sahashi, 1972, p. 160.
45. See Arisawa, 1976, pp. 34447; Akimi, pp. 4953; and MITI, 1970, p. 502. For an example of a later MITI official needling Ichimada because of his opposition to the Kawasaki project, see Amaya, pp. 7576.
46. On the World Bank loans, see MITI, 1972, p. 101. On the reaction to them, see the memoirs of Obori* Hiromu, who went to Washington to help negotiate the loans, in Industrial Policy Research Institute, p. 238; and MITI Journalists' Club, 1956, pp. 4748.
47. See Hirai's comments in
Tsusan
*
jyanaru
*, May 24, 1975, p. 29. See also Onishi*, p. 12.
48. Akimi, p. 78; Akimoto, pp. 1921; and MITI Journalists' Club, 1956, pp. 6687.
49. See "Kurabu kisha hodan*" (Free discussion by Press Club journalists),
Tsusan jyanaru
, May 24, 1975, p. 50.
50. Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Monograph 26, "Promotion of Fair Trade Practices," pp. 95, 101.
51.
Ibid.
, p. 60.
52. On the Bridgestone case, see Hewins, p. 310; on the du PontToray case, see Senba Tsuneyoshi, "Sengo sangyo* gorika* to gijutsu donyu*" (Postwar industrial rationalization and the import of technology), in History of Industrial Policy Research Institute, 1977a, pp. 11819.
53. Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers,
Historical Monographs
, vol. X, part C, "Elimination of Private Control Associations," p. 85. This mono-
Page 358
graph is not included in the set microfilmed, renumbered, and made generally available by the U.S. National Archives; it was microfilmed by the National Archives on June 4, 1974, at the special request of the author.
54. See, e.g., MITI, 1969a, p. 6.
55. Maeda, 1975, p. 14.
56. "New Japanese Law Sanctions Cartels,"
New York Times
, Sept. 27, 1953.
57. On the steel industry's "public sales system" see Nawa, 1976a, pp. 14654; Sahashi, 1967, pp. 18085; and "Gyosei * shido* no jittai o arau" (Probing the realities of administrative guidance),
Toyo
*
keizai
, Apr. 6, 1974, pp. 3133. Ariga Michiko, a long-time staff member of the FTC and the first woman to become a commissioner (196772), refers to the steel sales system as an "emasculation" of the AML. See the interview with her, "Kazaana aita dokkinho*'' (The AML riddled with holes),
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 22654, particularly pp. 24344.
58. MITI,
Nempo
* (fiscal 1957), pp. 100101; (fiscal 1958), p. 100; and (fiscal 1959), p. 99.
59. Sahashi, 1971a, pp. 26675; Sahashi, 1972, pp. 1819.
60. Kakuma, 1979b, p. 106.
61. Economic Planning Agency, 1976, pp. 7576; and Onishi*, p. 13. Kusayanagi Daizo* touches on the origins of the heavy and chemical industrialization policy in
Bungei
shunju
*, Aug. 1974, pp. 11213.
62. For the text of the MITI plan, see MITI, 1962, pp. 499501.
63. See Hirai's comments on Okano and Ishibashi, in Matsubayashi, 1973, pp. 3134, 4142; and Industrial Policy Research Institute, p. 247.
64. Quoted in
Consider Japan
, p. 56.
65. See Shibagaki Kazuo, in Tokyo University, 1975, 8: 89.
66. Japan External Trade Organization, pp. 268, 95152. The JETRO Establishment Law is printed in an English translation, pp. 93543.
67. See "How Foreign Lobby Molds U.S. Opinion,"
San Francisco Chronicle
, Sept. 15, 1976. Between 1959 and 1962 the New York office of JETRO also employed the services of former New York governor Thomas E. Dewey as a lobbyist. See Japan External Trade Organization, p. 78.
68.
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 100105; Japan External Trade Organization, p. 49;
Fifty Years
, p. 273; MITI Journalists' Club, 1956, pp. 88101; and Stone, pp. 14748.
69. Nakamura, 1969, p. 309.
70.
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 5152.
71. See Kakizaki.
72. Ministry of Finance, Tax Bureau, p. 84.
73.
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 2728.
74.
Ibid.
, pp. 2425.
75. Kakizaki, p. 83; Ministry of Finance, Tax Bureau, pp. 8491.
76. MITI,
Nempo
(fiscal 1956), p. 109.
77.
> Ibid.
(fiscal 1964), p. 62.
78. Tsuruta Toshimasa, in Kobayashi, 1976, p. 148.
79.
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 3638.
80. On the petrochemical industry, see inter alia, MITI, 1969b, pp. 31724 (basic policy statements);
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 2: 98148 (government-business relationships); and Senba Tsuneyoshi, in History of Industrial Policy Research Institute, 1977a, pp. 100114 (licensing and import of
Page 359
technology). For the dispute over the sale of state property, see Industrial Policy Research Institute, pp. 126, 246; and Arisawa, 1976, p. 244 (where it is argued that the sale of government installations during the 1950's was more important than the famous Meiji sales during the 1880's).
81. Arisawa, 1976, pp. 375, 390.
82. MITI,
Nempo
* (fiscal 1961), p. 112.
83. Kakuma, 1979b, p. 131.
84. For the text of the plan, see
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 17274.
85. Chandler.
86. Otis Cary, ed.,
War-Wasted Asia, Letters, 194546
(Tokyo: Kodansha* International, 1975), p. 193.
Seven
1. For Sahashi's background, see his autobiography,
Ishoku
kanryo
*, 1967; and Sahashi, 1972, pp. 15862.
2. Note that the term
ishoku kanryo
(exceptional bureaucrat) was also applied before the war to Wada Hiroo, the Agriculture Ministry official who was arrested in the Cabinet Planning Board incident and who headed the Economic Stabilization Board during the occupation. See Inaba, 1977, p. 178. For the phrase "samurai among samurai," see Matsubayashi, 1973, p. 138. For
gebaruto kanryo
, see Kusayanagi, May 1969, p. 162. For
kaijin Sachan
, see Kusayanagi, 1974, p. 115. See also Suzuki Yukio, 1969, p. 62.
3. Sahashi, 1967, p. 207.
4. MITI Journalists' Club, Oct. 1963, p. 76.
5.
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 7274; MITI Journalists' Club, 1956, pp. 19094.
6.
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 1: 14243.
7. Sahashi, 1967, p. 215. See also Kakuma, 1979b, pp. 13136.
8. For a photograph of the
Sakura Maru
and a story about it, see "Japan's Floating Fair Finds Success in Europe,"
New York Times
, Aug. 10, 1964. For the loan of the
Sakura
to the United States, see "Japanese Get Chance to Buy U.S. Goods at U.S. Prices,"
Los Angeles Times
, Oct. 30, 1978.
9. See Sahashi, 1967, pp. 191207; and Akimoto, pp. 8082.
10. Interview with Imai,
Ekonomisuto
, Sept. 14, 1976, p. 78.
11.
Ibid.
, p. 79.
12. Komatsu, p. 23.
13. Shiroyama, 1975a, pp. 8687. On the rates of liberalization, see MITI, 1965, pp. 698, 703.
14. Arisawa, 1976, p. 443; MITI Journalists' Club, Oct. 1963, p. 74.
15. Sahashi, 1967, p. 248.
16. See Ota* Shini'chiro* (MITI Secretariat, Planning Office), "Sangyo* kozo* seisaku" (Industrial structure policy), in Isomura, 1972, pp. 31215; MITI, 1969a, p. 11; MITI, 1972, pp. 12831; and MITI,
Nempo
(fiscal 1961), pp. 7576, 10910.
17. Industrial Structure Investigation Council, ed.,
Nihon no
sangyo
*
kozo
*.
18. Akaboshi, pp. 7382; MITI Journalists' Club, Oct. 1963, pp. 7884; MITI Journalists' Club, 1963a, p. 39; and Ito* Daiichi, 1967, pp. 78104.
19. Maeda, 1975, p. 16; Arisawa, 1976, p. 443; and Suzuki Yukio, 1963.
Page 360
20. For various analyses of Japanese "excessive competition," see Abegglen and Rapp; Aliber; Boltho, p. 61; and Hollerman, 1967, p. 162.
21. Takashima Setsuo.
22. On the number of MITI vice-ministers with experience in Europe but not in the United States, despite the weight of Japanese-American trade, see Endo *, 1975, p. 110.
23. On Konaga and Uchida, see Kusayanagi, 1974, pp. 11619.
24. Sahashi, 1967, pp. 24551.
25. See Japanese Diet, pp. 24.
26. See the obituaries of Ishizaka Taizo* in
Japan Times
, Mar. 7, 1975, and
San Francisco Chronicle
, Mar. 7, 1975.
27. MITI, 1969a, pp. 2, 11.
28. See Akaboshi, pp. 9396; Sahashi, 1967, pp. 24045; MITI Journalists' Club, 1963a, p. 38; and Resources Development and Management Research Council, p. 60, s.v. "Maruzen Oil Company."
29. The primary source on the "Fukuda typhoon," including the direct quotations in this and the following paragraphs, is MITI Journalists' Club, Oct. 1963.
30. Akimoto, pp. 91, 14243; Kakuma, 1979b, pp. 3446; Sahashi, 1967, pp. 25768; and Policy Review Company, 1968, p. 89.
31. On the "structural recession" thesis, see Arisawa, 1976, pp. 46567. For MITI's endorsement of this thesis, see MITI,
Nempo
* (fiscal 1965), p. 64.
32. For Fukuda's speech, see MITI,
Nempo
(fiscal 1964), p. 59; for the first use of
gyosei
*
shido
*, see
ibid.
(fiscal 1962), p. 123.
33.
The Economist
, Nov. 10, 1979, p. 85;
Japan Economic Journal
, May 14, 1974.
34.
Newsweek
, Aug. 21, 1972.
35. Stone, p. 152.
36. "'Gyosei* Shido*' Gets Close Public Scrutiny,"
Japan Times
, June 3, 1974.
37. Henderson, p. 202. See also Maeda, 1968, pp. 3840.
38. Shiroyama, Aug. 1975, p. 317. See also Amaya, p. 79; and Yamamoto, p. 81.
39. Yamanouchi, p. 193.
40.
Ibid.
, pp. 4749.
41. "Administrative Guidance,"
Mainichi Daily News
, Jan. 8, 1976.
42. Hewins, p. 305. The main official source on mergers is MITI, Enterprises Bureau, ed.,
Kigyo
*
gappei
(Enterprise mergers) (Tokyo: Okura-sho* Insatsukyoku, 1970).
43. Hollerman, 1967, p. 252.
44. Sahashi, 1967, pp. 29495. See Nakayama Sohei's high estimate of Sahashi's contribution to this merger in
Ekonomisuto
, July 13, 1976, p. 87.
45. Nawa, 1976a, p. 141; "Gyosei shido* no jittai o arau" (Probing the realities of administrative guidance),
Toyo
*
keizai
, Apr. 6, 1974, pp. 3133.
46. The primary sources on the Sumitomo Metals Company incident are Sahashi, 1967, pp. 28289; and Hyuga*, in
Ekonomisuto
Editorial Board, 2: 6774. See also Akaboshi, pp. 8392; Akimoto, pp. 5863; Industrial Policy Research Institute, pp. 11719; Kakuma, 1979b, pp. 17276; Nawa, 1976a, pp. 15966; Yamamoto, pp. 8284; and Yamanouchi, pp. 2930. For citations on legal studies of the incident, see Yamanouchi, p. 53, n. 2. For Kumagai's amakudari, see Matsubayashi, 1973, pp. 182, 194.
MITI and the Japanese miracle Page 56