8. Time, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 24.
9. Logbook of the USS Powhatan, Aug. 20, 1867, National Archives.
10. 1870 Maryland Census, HR M7241, p. 199, Isaiah Williams was listed as a baker. His 1872 marriage certificate, State of Maryland, National Archives, listed his occupation as grocer.
11. Catherine Reef, Buffalo Soldiers (New York: Twenty-first Century Books, 1993), p. 27.
12. Joseph C. Sides, Fort Brown Historical (San Antonio: Naylor Co., 1942), p. 141.
13. Army of the United States Certificate of Disability for Discharge for Thorney G. Marshall, pension claim 368747.
14. Records of Post Hospital, Fort Brown, Tex., Jan. 11, 1887, pension claim 368747.
15. Certificate of Disability for Discharge for Thorney G. Marshall.
16. Record of Marriage, Baltimore City Court of Common Pleas, liber AD 17, folio 116, Maryland State Archives CR 10, 288–2.
17. Board of Health, Baltimore City, Office of Registrar of Vital Statistics, A14968.
18. Margaret Callcott, The Negro in Maryland Politics: 1870–1912 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1969), p. 95.
19. Ibid., pp. 134–36.
20. Foreword, Blackletter Journal (Harvard Univ.), Spring 1989, p. 3.
21. Robert Jack, History of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Boston: Meador Publishing, 1943), p. 6.
22. Roderick Ryon, “Old West Baltimore,” Maryland Historical Magazine, vol. 77, no. 1 (Spring 1982), p. 59.
3. Educating Thurgood
1. Ponchitta Pierce, “The Solicitor General,” Ebony, vol. 21, 1965, p. 68.
2. Ibid., p. 67.
3. According to the family friend Archer B. Owens, from ibid., p. 67.
4. Arnold DeMille, “Thurgood Marshall,” Chicago Defender, May 8, 1954.
5. Richard Kluger interview with Thurgood Marshall, Dec. 28, 1973, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
6. Board of Health, Baltimore City, Office of Registrar of Vital Statistics, A39924.
7. Health Department, City of Baltimore, Certificate of Death, registered no. C81814. Note that his death certificate lists Thorney’s age as sixty-five, but other records indicate he was sixty-six years old.
8. Ryon, “Old West Baltimore,” pp. 59–60.
9. As cited in Garrett Powers, “Apartheid Baltimore Style: The Residential Segregation Ordinances of 1910–1913,” Maryland Law Review, vol. 42, no. 2 (1993), p. 295.
10. David Bogen, “Race and the Law in Maryland,” p. 188.
11. An amendment to the ordinance issued on Nov. 21, 1910, Baltimore City Council, 1st Branch Journal, 1910–11, pp. 397–401.
12. “Fearless Williams in the News,” B & O Magazine, Sept. 1951, p. 39.
13. Author’s interview with Douglas Turnbull, Jr.
14. Ryon, “Old West Baltimore,” p. 57.
15. Author’s interview with Enolia McMillan.
16. Author’s interview with Agnes Patterson.
17. Author’s interview with Julia Woodhouse Harden.
18. Author’s interview with Carrie Jackson; DeMille, “Thurgood Marshall.”
19. Author’s interviews with Ethel Williams, Pat Patterson, and Elizabeth [Penny] Monteiro.
20. “Colored People’s Mass Meeting,” Baltimore Sun, Aug. 6, 1875, p. 1; “The Colored People’s Meeting …,” Baltimore Sun, Aug. 7, 1875, p. 2.
21. “The Cake Walk Homicide,” Baltimore Sun, Nov. 25, 1875, p. 4.
22. Accounts of this incident come from Arthur Waskow, From Race Riot to Sit-In, 1919 and the 1960s (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1966), pp. 21–27.
23. 1920 Maryland Census, Enumerated District 240, sheet 4.
24. Register of Baltimore, School Records of Norma A. Marshall.
25. Mason A. Hawkins, “Frederick Douglass High School: A Seventeen Year Period Survey” (thesis, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1933).
26. Randolph C. Hinton to Thurgood Marshall, May 13, 1962, NAACP Files, Library of Congress.
27. Author’s interview with Essie Hughes.
28. Author’s interview with Charlotte Shervington.
29. “The Law: The Tension of Change,” Time, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 26.
30. It has been reported that Willie Marshall may have been one of the first blacks in Baltimore to serve on a jury. But court records offer no evidence that he did so. When asked if his father was ever a juror, Thurgood Marshall later said: “Not that I know of. As we say down South, I ‘disremember’—I’m sure it’s not true.”
31. Washington Star, Aug. 28, 1958; Newsweek, June 26, 1967, p. 35.
32. Author’s interview with Cab Calloway.
33. Record of St. Katherine’s Episcopal Church, p. 152.
34. Author’s interview with Teddy Stewart.
35. Author’s interview with Elizabeth [Penny] Monteiro.
36. Certificate of Recommendation, Frederick Douglass High School, Baltimore, Md., and Permanent Record Card, Colored High School, Baltimore, Md., for Marshall, Thurgood.
4. Waking Up
1. Lincoln University to Norma Marshall, June 24, 1925, Archives of Lincoln Univ.
2. Rev. W. W. Walker to William H. Johnson, June 13, 1925; William H. Johnson to Rev. W W Walker, June 17, 1925, Archives of Lincoln Univ.
3. Time, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 24.
4. Author’s interview with Franz Byrd.
5. Ponchitta Pierce, “The Solicitor General,” Ebony, vol. 21, 1965, p. 69.
6. Quotation from Arna Bontemps, as cited in Pierce, p. 67.
7. Richard Kluger interview with Alfred Kelly, Dec. 28, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
8. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling.
9. Irwin Ross, in Baltimore Afro-American Magazine, Aug. 13, 1960, p. 1.
10. Hughes as quoted in Pierce, p. 67.
11. Langston Hughes, “Three Students Look at Lincoln,” Mar. 1929, Archives of Lincoln Univ., p. B.
12. Irvin Ross, Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 13, 1960, p. 4.
13. Hughes, “Three Students Look,” p. 2.
14. W.E.B. Du Bois, in The Crisis, 1929.
15. Afro-American Magazine, Jan. 31, 1948, p. M-7.
16. Ted Poston, “On Appeal to the Supreme Court,” The Survey, Jan. 1949.
17. Pierce, “Solicitor General,” pp. 67–68; Arnold DeMille, “Thurgood Marshall,” Chicago Defender, May 8, 1954.
5. Turkey
1. “No, I never applied there,” Marshall told the author Richard Kluger in 1973, Brown Collection, Yale Univ. He reiterated it during my 1989 interview.
2. Susanna McBee, “Advocate for U.S.,” Life, Nov. 12, 1965, pp. 57–60.
3. Author’s interview with William Bryant.
4. Charles Houston, “The Need for Negro Lawyers,” Journal of Negro Education, Jan. 1935.
5. Oliver Allen, “Chief Counsel for Equality,” Life, June 13, 1955, p. 141.
6. James Poling, “Thurgood Marshall and the Fourteenth Amendment,” Collier’s, Feb. 23, 1952.
7. Author’s interview with Oliver Hill.
8. Allen, “Chief Counsel,” p. 141.
9. Time, Dec. 21, 1953, p. 19.
10. Charles Houston to Walter White, Oct. 16, 1933, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
11. Walter White, A Man Called White (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1948), p. 154.
6. His Own Man
1. Jo Ann E. Argersinger, Toward a New Deal in Baltimore (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1988), p. 30.
2. Irwin Ross, “Thurgood Marshall,” Afro-American Magazine, Aug. 20, 1960, p. 5.
3. Author’s interview with Pat Patterson.
4. Baltimore City Court, 1936, Harvey Moses v. Doctor W. Aubrey Marshall.
5. Annapolis Evening Capitol, July 13, 1934, p. 1.
6. “Negroes Executed,” Baltimore Sun, Apr. 19, 1935.
7. Thurgood Marshall to Lillie M. Jackson, Mar. 4, 1936, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
8. Baltimore Criminal Court Docket, 1936, State of Maryland v. V
irtis Lucas.
9. Andor Skotnes, “The Black Freedom Movement and the Workers’ Movement in Baltimore, 1930–1939” (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers Univ., 1991), p. 325.
10. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
11. Baltimore Afro-American, n.d., NAACP Papers, LC; Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, Dec. 18, 1934, NAACP Papers, LC.
12. Linda Zeidman, “Sparrow’s Point, Dundalk, Highlandtown, Old West Baltimore: Home of Gold Dust and the Union Card,” The Baltimore Book (Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 187–90.
13. Jo Ann E. Argersinger, Toward a New Deal in Baltimore (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1988), p. 156.
14. David Bogen, “Black Lawyers in Maryland in the Forgotten Era,” p. 14.
15. Author’s interview with Walter Carr.
16. Skotnes, “Black Freedom Movement,” pp. 211–37.
7. Getting Started
1. Thurgood Marshall’s interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
2. As cited in Genna Rae McNeil, Groundwork (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), p. 138.
3. Ken Gormley “Justice Thurgood Marshall,” ABA Journal, June 1992, p. 64.
4. Richard Kluger interview with Thurgood Marshall, Dec. 28, 1973, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
5. H. L. Mencken, “The Murray Case,” Baltimore Evening Sun, Sept. 23, 1935.
6. Charles Houston to Walter White, Sept. 19, 1935, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
7. Author’s interview with Margery Prout.
8. Baltimore Afro-American, Oct. 5, 1935, p. 1.
9. Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, Feb. 10, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC; Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 22, 1936.
10. Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, Apr. 7, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
11. Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, July 13, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
12. Thurgood Marshall to Milford [sic] Tydings, Jan. 29, 1935, NAACP Papers, LC.
13. Thurgood Marshall to Millard Tydings, Apr. 10, 1935; Millard Tydings to Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 12, 1935, NAACP Papers, LC.
14. Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, Jan. 21, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
15. Charles Houston to Thurgood Marshall, Jan. 23, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
16. Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, May 25, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
17. Roy Wilkins to Thurgood Marshall, July 8, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
18. Charles Houston to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 17, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
19. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Oct. 6, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
8. Leaving Home
1. Author’s interview with Aubrey Marshall, Jr.
2. Author’s interview with Essie Hughes.
3. Author’s interview with Teddy Stewart.
4. Author’s interview with Cab Calloway.
5. School records of Norma A. Marshall, Register of Baltimore. By the time of Aubrey’s illness she had been a full-time teacher for ten years. She began in 1927, earning $1,300 annually.
6. Baltimore Afro-American, July 31, 1937.
7. Philip Brown, A Century of “Separate but Equal” Education in Anne Arundel County (New York: Vantage Press, 1988), p. 81; Letter to the Editor from Rose Wiseman, The Capitol, Jan. 30, 1993
8. Mills v. Board of Education of Anne Arundel County, Opinion of Judge Chesnut, 1939.
9. 69 Fifth Avenue
1. Charles Houston to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 17, 1936, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
2. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling.
3. Memo from Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 3, 1937, NAACP Papers, LC.
4. Baltimore Afro-American, Oct. 5, 1935.
5. Thurgood Marshall to NAACP, Oct. 17, 1937, Yale Univ. Archives.
6. Buffalo Courier Express, Mar. 23, 1937, Papers of Charles Houston, More-land-Spingarn Research Center, Howard Univ.
7. Charles Houston to Sidney Redmond, Sept. 24, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
8. Edward Clayton, “The Strange Disappearance of Lloyd …,” Ebony, vol. 7, no. 7, p. 32.
9. Thurgood Marshall to Charles Houston, Aug. 4, 1939, NAACP Papers, LC.
10. Baltimore Afro-American, Oct. 28, 1938; Walter White to Sidney Redmond, Jan. 23, 1940, NAACP Papers, LC. The NAACP never did locate Gaines, and subsequent inquiries by newspapers and magazines similarly found nothing. In 1995 Gaines’s remaining relatives said they still had not heard from him; the Social Security Administration said that year there was no record of Gaines’s death.
11. As cited in Clayton, “Strange Disappearance,” p. 30.
12. Genna Rae McNeil, Groundwork (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), pp. 146–47.
13. Charles Houston to William Houston, Apr. 14, 1938, NAACP Papers, LC.
14. As cited in McNeil, Groundwork, p. 149.
15. Unnamed source, interview with the FBI, Sept. 13, 1961, FBI file 77–26395.
16. Richard Kluger’s interview with Thurgood Marshall.
17. Charles Houston to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 17, 1936, NAACP Papers, LC.
10. Marshall in Charge
1. Hale v. Kentucky (1938).
2. Asst. Attorney General Brien McMahon to J. E. Hoover, Dec. 27, 1938, FBI file 44 227–1.
3. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
4. Thurgood Marshall to ACLU Board, Apr. 26, 1939, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
5. Baltimore Afro-American, Nov. 22, 1941, p. 1.
6. Baltimore Afro-American, Dec. 19, 1942, p. 24.
7. Thurgood Marshall to NAACP, Nov. 25, 1941, NAACP Papers, LC.
8. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, May 5, 1940, NAACP Papers, LC.
9. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling.
10. Author’s interview with Mildred Byrd.
11. Thurgood Marshall to 31st NAACP Convention, June 20, 1940, NAACP Papers, LC.
12. Thurgood Marshall to Office, Nov. 17, 1941, NAACP Papers, LC.
13. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
14. Richard Kluger interview with Herbert Wechsler, Nov. 21, 1973, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
15. Smith v. Allwright (1944).
16. Norfolk Journal and Guide, Apr. 15, 1944.
17. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
18. Irwin Ross, Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 6, 1960.
11. Pan of Bones
1. Sheriff Roy Harmon quoted in Oklahoma Black Dispatch, Feb. 8, 1941, p. 5.
2. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Jan. 29, 1941, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
3. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Feb. 2, 1941, NAACP Papers, LC.
4. Oklahoma Black Dispatch, Feb. 8, 1941, p. 5.
5. Ibid.
6. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Feb. 2, 1941, NAACP Papers, LC.
7. Ibid.
8. Oklahoma Black Dispatch, Feb. 8, 1941, p. 5.
9. Oklahoma Black Dispatch, Feb. 1, 1941, p. 2.
10. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Feb. 2, 1941, NAACP Papers, LC.
11. Undated pamphlet on legal defense, NAACP Papers, LC.
12. Baltimore Afro-American, June 10, 1944, p. 3.
13. Statement by Joseph Spell to his attorneys, Dec. 14, 1940, NAACP Papers, LC.
14. Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 8, 1941, p. 1.
12. The War Years
1. Charles Houston to A. Philip Randolph, May 20, 1941, Houston Papers, Moreland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard Univ.
2. Walter White to William Hastie, May 4, 1943, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
3. William Hastie to Walter White, May 4, 1943, NAACP Papers, LC.
4. Morris Ernst to Walter White, Oct. 29, 1942, NAACP Papers, LC.
5. Walter White to Morris Ernst, Oct. 31, 1942, NAACP Papers, LC.
6. FBI Report, Dec. 17, 1943, FBI file 100–3050.
7. Author’s interview with Edward Dudley; George Stevens interview with Rob
ert Carter, American Film Institute, Kennedy Center.
8. Michael Carter, Baltimore Afro-American, June 3, 1944.
9. As cited in Baltimore Afro-American, July 17, 1943.
10. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
11. Thurgood Marshall, “Gestapo in Detroit,” The Crisis, Aug. 1943.
12. Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 14, 1943.
13. Mark Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 66.
14. Thurgood Marshall to Office, Oct. 8, 1944, NAACP Papers, LC.
15. Thurgood Marshall before Judge Advocate General, Apr. 3, 1945, NAACP Papers, LC.
16. Eleanor Roosevelt to James Forrestal, Apr. 8, 1945, National Archives.
17. NAACP Press Release, July 13, 1945, NAACP Papers, LC; Secretary of the Navy to Thurgood Marshall, undated, National Archives.
18. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
13. Lynch Mob for a Lawyer
1. “Four Police, Two Civilians Shot…,” Nashville Tennesean, Feb. 26, 1946, p. 1.
2. “Terror in Tennessee,” NAACP pamphlet, 1946, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
3. Author’s interview with Jack Lovett.
4. Report on Investigation made on Feb. 27–28, 1946.
5. Author’s interview with Raymond Lockridge.
6. Vincent Tubbs, Afro-American, Oct. 10, 1946, p. 3.
7. “Terror in Tennessee.”
8. “We Urge Calm,” Daily Herald, Feb. 26, 1946, p. 2.
9. Leslie Hart, “Long Distance Calls …,” Nashville Banner, Mar. 2, 1946, p. 2.
10. Ibid.
11. Danny Bingham, “Maury Hearing Resumed …,” Nashville Banner, June 14, 1946, p. 8.
12. Walter White to the Committee on Administration, July 12, 1946, NAACP Papers, LC; Memo from Walter White to Staff, July 12, 1946, NAACP Papers, LC.
13. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
14. Walter White to the Board of Directors, Sept. 9, 1946, NAACP Papers, LC; Passport Application for Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 27, 1946, U.S. Department of State.
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