15. Vincent Tubbs, “Implications …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Oct. 12, 1946, p. 2.
16. Ibid.
17. Vincent Tubbs, “Believed to Show …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Sept. 28, 1946, p. 1.
18. Author’s interview with Paul Bumpus.
19. Tubbs, “Implications,” p. 2.
20. Transcript of closing arguments in State of Tennessee v. Pillow and Kennedy.
21. Author’s interview with Flo Fleming.
22. Winfred Hopton interview with Constable Archibald Butts, Feb. 2, 1947, FBI file 44–78.
23. Pittsburgh Courier, Dec. 7, 1946, p. 1.
14. Jim Crow Buster
1. Walter White to Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 24, 1946, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
2. Speech of Robert W. Kenny, NAACP Papers, LC.
3. Spingarn Award speech of Thurgood Marshall, NAACP Papers, LC.
4. Ted Poston, “On Appeal in the Supreme Court,” The Survey, Jan. 1949, pp. 18–21.
5. “Mother Considered Power …,” Baltimore Afro-American, July 13, 1946, p. 17.
6. Author’s interview with Alice Stovall.
7. “Supreme Court to Review …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 9, 1946, p. 17.
8. “Supreme Court to Hear …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Mar. 9, 1946, p. 1.
9. Walter White to Thurgood Marshall, Mar. 30, 1946, NAACP Papers, LC.
10. Robert Watts to Franklin Williams, Feb. 5, 1949, NAACP Papers, LC.
11. Garrett Power, “Apartheid Baltimore Style: The Residential Segregation Ordinances of 1910–1913,” Maryland Law Review, vol. 42, no. 2 (1993), pp. 310–12.
12. Thurgood Marshall to National Legal Committee, June 13, 1945, NAACP Papers, LC.
13. Carl Murphy, “President Truman …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Jan. 24, 1948, p. 1.
14. Lem Graves, “Housing Decision Awaited,” Pittsburgh Courier, Jan. 24, 1948, p. 4.
15. Carl Murphy, “President Truman …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Jan. 24, 1948, p. 1.
16. Ibid.
17. Notes from Richard Kluger’s interview with Philip Elman, Aug. 19, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
18. “They said …,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 15, 1948, sec. 2, p. 4.
19. Jack Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 259.
15. Groveland
1. “Posse ‘Lynches’ Fla. Case Suspect,” Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 6, 1949, p. 2.
2. “Three Prisoners Tied to Pipes …,” Pittsburgh Courier, Aug. 6, 1949, p. 4.
3. “Fla. Judge Bars …,” Pittsburgh Courier, Dec. 15, 1951, p. 1.
4. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
5. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
6. Ibid.
7. “Guard NAACP Chief,” Pittsburgh Courier, Dec. 22, 1951, p. 1.
8. “NAACP Rallies to Aid Moore,” Pittsburgh Courier, Jan. 5, 1952, p. 4.
9. Buddy Lonsome, “Marshall Reveals …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 23, 1952, p. 9.
10. Baltimore Afro-American, Dec. 24, 1955.
16. Lessons in Politics
1. Thurgood Marshall to Tom Clark, Dec. 27, 1946, FBI file 61-3176-364.
2. J. E. Hoover to Tom Clark, Jan. 10, 1947, FBI file 61-3176-364.
3. J. E. Hoover to Walter White, Jan. 13, 1947, FBI file 61-3176-367.
4. J. E. Hoover to Walter White, Apr. 4, 1947, FBI file 61-3176-367.
5. Clyde Tolson to L. B. Nichols, Jan. 10, 1948, FBI file 44-1854.
6. D. M. Ladd to J. E. Hoover, July 21, 1948, FBI file 61-3176-462.
7. Michael Carter, “Meet the NAACP’s …,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 3, 1944, p. 2.
8. “National Affairs,” Newsweek, June 26, 1967, p. 35.
9. Ibid.
10. Stephen Spingarn to Mr. Clifford, May 16, 1949, Truman Papers, HST Presidential Library.
11. Eleanor Roosevelt to Paul Fitzpatrick, Aug. 9, 1949, Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, FDR Presidential Library.
17. On the Front Line
1. Thurgood Marshall to Walter White, Oct. 7, 1948, NAACP papers, LC.
2. Thurgood Marshall to Robert Silberstein, Oct. 25, 1949, NAACP Papers, LC.
3. Daniel Byrd to Donald Jones, Apr. 25, 1949, Byrd Papers, Amistad Research Center, Tulane Univ.
4. James Hicks, “NAACP Boots Reds,” Baltimore Afro-American, July 1, 1950, p. 1.
5. Thurgood Marshall, Draft of “Report on Korea,” undated, NAACP Papers, LC.
6. V. P. Keay to A. H. Pelmont, Dec. 15, 1950, FBI file 61-3176-573.
7. Thurgood Marshall, 1951 Diary, NAACP Papers, LC.
8. D. Clayton James interview with Gen. George Hickman, Douglas MacArthur Library.
9. Thurgood Marshall, “Report on Korea,” NAACP Papers, LC.
10. Cliff MacKay, “Courts Martial Hasty,” Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 24, 1951, p. 1.
11. “Mission Accomplished,” Pittsburgh Courier, Feb. 24, 1951, p. 22.
18. Direct Attack
1. Time, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 26.
2. Michael Gillette, “Heman Marion Sweatt: Civil Rights Plaintiff,” in Black Leaders: Texans for Their Times (Austin: Texas State Historical Assn., 1981), pp. 163–64.
3. Heman Sweatt to Walter White, Sept. 3, 1948, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
4. Heman Sweatt to Walter White, Nov. 8, 1946, NAACP Papers, LC.
5. A. Maceo Smith interview with Fisk Univ. Black Oral History Program, Nov. 13, 1972.
6. Author’s interview with James Stewart.
7. Author’s interview with Constance Baker Motley.
8. Walter Gellhorn interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
9. Author’s interview with Ada Lois Sipuel.
10. Author’s interview with Joe Greenhill.
11. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (New York: Vintage Books, 1975), p. 263.
12. Statement of Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 5, 1947, NAACP Papers, LC.
13. Robert Carter interview with Caroline Stevens, Dec. 19, 1988.
14. Statement of Thurgood Marshall, Denison, Tex., Sept. 5, 1947, NAACP Papers, LC.
15. Charles Houston to Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 20, 1949, NAACP Papers, LC.
16. “U.S. Enters Schools Cases,” Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 18, 1950, p. 2.
17. W. I. Gibson, “Equality Impossible …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Apr. 15, 1950, p. 6.
18. As cited in Genna Rae McNeil, Groundwork (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), p. 199.
19. As cited in ibid., p. 200.
20. As cited in Jack Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 4.
21. “NAACP Board Grieves …,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 6, 1950, p. 7.
22. Louis Lautier, “NAACP Lawyers …,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 10, 1950, p. 2.
23. As cited in Gillette, “Heman Marion Sweatt,” p. 178.
24. Heman Sweatt, “Why I Want to Attend …,” Texas Ranger, Sept. 1947, p. 40.
19. Number One Negro of All Time
1. Charles Jones to Thurgood Marshall, May 1949, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
2. Carl Murphy to Eleanor Roosevelt, Aug. 30, 1949, Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.
3. “Leaders Ridicule …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 27, 1949, p. 12.
4. Ibid.
5. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
6. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
7. Henry Lee Moon interview with the Columbia Oral History Project; author’s interview with Herbert Hill.
8. Richard Kluger interview with Herbert Hill, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
9. Arnold Aronson to Thurgood Marshall, Apr. 26, 1951, NAACP Papers, LC; author’s interview with William T. Coleman.
10. Author’s interviews with Claude Connor and Elizabeth Monteiro.
11. Author’s interview with Eve
lyn Cunningham.
12. James Poling, “Thurgood Marshall and the Fourteenth Amendment,” Collier’s, Feb. 23, 1952, pp. 29–32.
13. Ibid.
14. “New Federal Judge?” Baltimore Afro-American, Apr. 12, 1952, p. 1.
20. Planning a Revolt
1. “End of JC in Sight,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 17, 1950, p. 1.
2. Author’s interview with Spottswood Robinson.
3. Robert Carter interview with Radio America.
4. Mendez v. Westminster School District (1946).
5. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
6. Radio America interview with Kenneth Clark.
7. A. P. Tureaud to E. A. Johnson, July 15, 1950, Tureaud Papers, Amistad Research Center, Tulane Univ.
8. Franklin Williams to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 9, 1948, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
9. Author’s interview with Robert Carter.
10. Caroline Stevens interview with Kenneth Clark, June 21, 1988.
11. Author’s interview with Kenneth Clark.
12. J. Waties Waring interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
13. Thurgood Marshall and Robert Carter, “Real Heroes in S.C.,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 16, 1951, p. 4.
14. J. Waties Waring interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
15. Victor Gray, “S.C. School Case …,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 9, 1951, p. 2.
16. Ibid.
17. Ted Poston, “Time Running Out…,” New York Post, June 3, 1951, p. 22.
18. Ibid.
19. Hugh Speer, Case of the Century (Kansas City: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1968), p. 91.
20. Tinsley Yarbrough, A Passion for Justice (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1987), p. 195, from opinion in Briggs v. Elliott (1951).
21. “S.C. Case …,” Baltimore Afro-American, June 30, 1951, p. 19, dissent in Briggs v. Elliott (1951).
22. William Henry Harbaugh, Lawyer’s Lawyer: The Life of John W. Davis (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973).
23. As cited in Yarbrough, Passion for Justice, p. 199.
24. Marjorie McKenzie, in Pittsburgh Courier, July 7, 1951, p. 1.
25. Richard Kluger interview with Marjorie McKenzie, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
26. Franklin Williams to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 9, 1948, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
27. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (New York: Vintage Books, 1975), p. 411.
28. Speer, Case of the Century, p. 49.
29. Ibid., p. 78.
30. Robert Carter to Thurgood Marshall, June 29, 1951, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
31. Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (1952).
32. Author’s interview with June Shagaloff.
33. Richard Kluger interview with Tom Clark, Oct. 8, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
21. Case of the Century
1. Richard Kluger interview with Charles Black, July 29, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
2. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
3. Thurgood Marshall speech at Howard Univ., Apr. 16, 1952, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
4. James Freedman, Speech at Washington Univ. Law School, Feb. 16, 1994.
5. Radio America interview with Kenneth Clark.
6. “The Fading Color Line,” Time, Dec. 21, 1953, p. 19.
7. Excerpted in Baltimore Afro-American, Dec. 13, 1952, p. 14.
8. Richard Kluger interview with Philip Elman, Aug. 19, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
9. Caroline Stevens interview with Julia Davis Adams, July 20, 1988.
10. Caroline Stevens interview with Taggart Whipple, May 19, 1988.
11. “Supreme Court Hears Final …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Dec. 20, 1952, p. 6.
12. Oral arguments in the consolidated cases of Brown v. Board of Education (1952).
13. “600 Laud Marshall …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 21, 1953, p. 22.
14. Jack Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 177.
15. As cited in Mark Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 187.
16. As cited in ibid., p. 190; and Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (New York: Vintage Books, 1975), p. 606.
17. Author’s interview with Warren Burger.
18. Richard Kluger interview with Alfred Kelly, Dec. 28, 1971, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
19. Alfred Kelly to Thurgood Marshall, Oct. 19, 1953, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
20. George Stevens interview with John Hope Franklin, May 25, 1988.
21. NAACP brief from Brown v. Board of Education (1953).
22. “All Citizens …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Dec. 5, 1953, p. 2.
23. Author’s interview with William T. Coleman.
24. Richard Kluger interview with Louis Pollack, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
25. Author’s interview with William T. Coleman.
26. Paul Wilson, A Time to Lose, (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1995), p. 188; William Coleman to Thurgood Marshall, Dec. 10, 1953, LDF Papers, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
27. Thurgood Marshall, Jan. 23, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
28. Thurgood Marshall, Mar. 30, 1954, NAACP Papers, LC.
29. “The Tension of Change,” Time, Sept. 19, 1955, p. 27.
30. Radio America interview with E. Barrett Prettyman.
31. John Geiger, “Mr. Civil Rights …,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 29, 1954, p. 13.
32. “Segregation …,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 29, 1954, p. 1.
33. Author’s interview with Joe Greenhill.
22. No Radical
1. Author’s interview with Herbert Hill.
2. Radio America interview with Kenneth Clark.
3. Author’s interview with Alice Stovall.
4. Author’s interview with John A. Davis.
5. Luther Huston, “1896 Ruling Upset,” New York Times, May 18, 1954, p. 1.
6. “Ruling Gets Rebel Yell in South,” Washington Daily News, May 18, 1954; Baltimore Afro-American, Nov. 14, 1954, p. 1.
7. “Editorial Excerpts,” New York Times, May 18, 1954, p. 19.
8. William Henry Harbaugh, Lawyer’s Lawyer: The Life of John W. Davis (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973), p. 511.
9. Herbert Brownell oral history, Eisenhower Presidential Library.
10. James Hicks, “NAACP Warns …,” Baltimore Afro-American, May 29, 1954, p. 1; “School Plan Set …,” New York Times, May 24, 1954, p. 19.
11. John Geiger, “Mr. Civil Rights …,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 29, 1954, p. 13.
12. Speech of Thurgood Marshall, Jan. 23, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.; speech of Thurgood Marshall, undated, Amistad Research Center, Tulane Univ.
13. Speech of Thurgood Marshall, June 30, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
14. William Coleman to Thurgood Marshall, Oct. 14, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
15. Richard Kluger interview with Anthony Lewis, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
16. Transcript of phone conversation between Carl Murphy and Thurgood Marshall, Nov. 29, 1954, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
17. Author’s interview with John A. Davis.
18. Author’s interview with Mildred Byrd.
19. Ken Gormley, “Justice Thurgood Marshall,” ABA Journal, June 1992, p. 66.
20. Author’s interview with Claude Connor.
21. “Buster Marshall,” Baltimore Afro-American, Feb. 26, 1955, p. 4.
22. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
23. “Roy Wilkins Seen Succeeding …,” Pittsburgh Courier, Mar. 26, 1955, p. 4.
24. Oral argument in Brown v. Board of Education (1955).
25. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
26. Author’s interview with Robert Carter.
27. Transcript of conversation
between Thurgood Marshall and Carl Murphy, June 2, 1955, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
28. Time, June 13, 1955.
29. “Junior Page,” Baltimore Afro-American magazine, July 9, 1955, p. 4.
30. “The Tension of Change,” Time, Sept. 19, 1955, pp. 23–27.
31. Samuel Hoskins, “Thurgood: Time’s Portrait,” Baltimore Afro-American, Sept. 24, 1955, p. 22.
32. C. Tolson to L. B. Nichols, Oct. 19, 1955, FBI file 61–3176–1076.
33. New York Times, Oct. 16, 1955; Baltimore Afro-American, Oct. 8, 1995.
34. L. V Boardman to A. H. Belmont, Oct. 21, 1955, FBI file 61–3176–1076.
35. Author’s interview with Gloster Current.
36. Author’s interview with Cecelia Marshall.
37. Author’s interview with Arnold DeMille.
38. “Thurgood Loses Heart,” Baltimore Afro-American, Dec. 17, 1955, p. 1.
23. Martin Luther King, Jr.
1. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
2. As cited in Eyes on the Prize (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), p. 76.
3. Bernard Taper, “A Reporter at Large,” New Yorker, Mar. 17, 1956, p. 88.
4. Author’s interview with Harris Wofford.
5. Author’s interview with Evelyn Cunningham.
6. Mark Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 239.
7. Oliver Allen, “Chief Counsel for Equality,” Life, June 13, 1955, p. 148; Taper, “Reporter at Large,” p. 84.
8. “Thurgood, Junior?” Baltimore Afro-American, Mar. 3, 1956, p. 1.
9. “Mrs. Marshall Is Expecting!” Pittsburgh Courier, Mar. 17, 1956, p. 6.
10. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), p. 190.
11. Speech of Thurgood Marshall, June 26, 1956, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
12. Author’s interview with Herbert Hill.
13. David Garrow, Bearing the Cross (New York: William Morrow, 1986), p. 80.
24. Machiavellian Marshall
1. J. E. Hoover to Dillon Anderson, Jan. 3, 1956, Eisenhower Library.
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