2. “Probe of South’s FBI …,” Baltimore Sun, Sept. 26, 1955, p. 28.
3. J. Edgar Hoover to Thurgood Marshall, Sept. 30, 1955, FBI file 61-3176-16.
4. Thurgood Marshall to J. Edgar Hoover, Oct. 7, 1955, FBI file 61-3176-10568.
5. J. Edgar Hoover to Thurgood Marshall, Oct. 13, 1955, FBI file 61-3176-1054.
6. Thurgood Marshall to J. Edgar Hoover, Jan. 24, 1956, FBI file 61-3176-1202.
7. L. B. Nichols to Tolson, Feb. 8, 1956, FBI file 62-86660-12.
8. Rosen to Price, Feb. 9, 1956, FBI file 62-86660-11.
9. L. B. Nichols to Tolson, June 15, 1956, FBI file 62-86660-16.
10. Speech of Thurgood Marshall, June 26, 1956, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
11. “The Thurgood Marshall Story,” Pittsburgh Courier, July 14, 1956, p. 13.
12. Taper, “Reporter at Large,” p. 91.
13. Samuel Hoskins, “NAACP Defies …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 4, 1956, p. 1.
14. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
15. Author’s interview with Ed Dudley.
16. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
17. Author’s interview with Gloria Branker.
18. Henry Lee Moon interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
19. Jamye Coleman Williams, The Negro Speaks (New York: Noble and Noble, 1970).
20. “A Policy of Gradualism …,” Newsweek, Sept. 17, 1956, pp. 36–37.
25. The Second Civil War
1. Juan Williams, Eyes on the Prize (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), pp. 97–101.
2. Orval Faubus to President Eisenhower, Sept. 4, 1957, DDE Library.
3. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
4. Wiley Branton interview at Moreland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard Univ.
5. “U.S. Court Denies …,” New York Times, Sept. 8, 1957, p. 66.
6. Ann Whitman Diary, Aug. 14, 1956, DDE Library.
7. Ibid., Oct. 8, 1957.
8. Thurgood Marshall to President Eisenhower, undated, DDE Library.
9. Thurgood Marshall interview.
10. Williams, Eyes on the Prize, pp. 105–6.
11. Woodrow W. Mann to President Eisenhower, Sept. 23, 1957, DDE Library.
12. Daisy Bates to Gloster Current, Sept. 23 and 24, 1957, NAACP Papers, Library of Congress.
13. Woodrow W Mann to President Eisenhower, Sept. 24, 1957, DDE Library.
14. “President Eisenhower …,” Congressional Quarterly, Sept. 27, 1957, p. 1146.
15. Wiley Branton interview.
16. “Senators, Governors …,” Congressional Quarterly, Sept. 27, 1957, p. 1147.
17. “Mike Wallace Asks Thurgood Marshall … ”New York Post, Sept. 30, 1957.
18. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
19. Baltimore Afro-American, June 28, 1958, p. 1.
20. Claude Sitton, “Little Rock Case …,” New York Times, Aug. 5, 1958, p. 1.
21. New York Post, Aug. 28, 1958.
22. “New Arguments …,” New York Times, Aug. 29, 1958, p. 8.
23. “Power of U.S. Court …,” Pittsburgh Courier, Sept. 20, 1958, p. 3.
24. Mark Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), p. 266.
25. Judge Carter refused to comment on this episode despite several phone calls and a letter requesting his input.
26. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
27. Author’s interview with Marietta Dochery.
28. Michael Singer, “GOP Bars Negro …,” New York Post, Feb. 8, 1956.
29. New York Post, May 15, 1958.
30. New York Post, May 16, 1958.
26. Marshall and the Militants
1. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
2. New York Post, July 16, 1959.
3. “Muhammud Hits …,” New Jersey Herald News, Dec. 5, 1959.
4. Kenneth O’Reilly, Black Americans: The FBI Files (New York: Carroll, Graf, 1994), pp. 458–59.
5. Memo from Office of the Director, May 11, 1959, FBI file 62-86660-23.
6. SAC, NYC, May 21, 1959, FBI file 100-111437-14.
7. SAC New York to Director, June 5, 1959, FBI files 100-111437 and 100-111437-16.
8. Robert Williams, Negroes with Guns (Chicago: Third World Press, 1973), pp. 58–63.
9. Louis Lautier, “Suspension Given OK,” Baltimore Afro-American, July 25, 1959, pp. 1–2.
27. Exit Time
1. Murray Kempton, “The Diplomat,” New York Post, Jan. 26, 1960.
2. Thurgood Marshall interview with Columbia Oral History Project.
3. Baltimore Sun, Jan. 22, 1960.
4. Robert Ruark, “Africa …,” New York World-Telegram and Sun, Feb. 3, 1960.
5. “Tomorrow’s Too Late …,” Baltimore Afro-American, Jan. 30, 1960, p. 9.
6. Derrick Bell, “An Epistolary …,” Blackletter Journal (Harvard Univ.), Spring 1989, p. 55.
7. Robert Clark, “Behind the Sit-ins,” Washington Star, Apr. 21, 1960, p. A-5.
8. Baltimore Sun, Mar. 30, 1960.
9. “Patience No Virtue …,” Baltimore Afro-American Magazine, May 28, 1960, p. 4.
10. Author’s interview with Donald Hollowell.
11. Irwin Ross, “Thurgood Marshall,” Baltimore Afro-American, Aug. 27, 1960, p. 4.
12. Carl Murphy, “Thurgood Marshall Next?” Baltimore Afro-American, Mar. 11, 1961, p. 4.
13. William Coleman to Frank Reeves, May 5, 1961, JFK Library.
14. Emanuel Celler to Robert Kennedy, May 24, 1961, Justice Dept.
15. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
16. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
17. Ramsey Clark to Byron White, Aug. 4, 1961, Justice Dept.; author’s interview with Louis Martin.
18. Jack Greenberg, Crusaders in the Courts (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 295.
19. Ibid., p. 294.
20. Jack Greenberg interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
21. Author’s interview with John Hope Franklin.
22. Author’s interview with Robert Carter.
28. Black Robes
1. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
2. “Judge Marshall Now,” Baltimore Afro-American, Nov. 4, 1961, p. 4.
3. Felix Frankfurter to William Coleman, Jan. 2, 1962, Frankfurter Papers, Harvard Univ.
4. William Coleman to Felix Frankfurter, Jan. 4, 1962, Frankfurter Papers, Harvard Univ.
5. Author’s interview with J. Edward Lumbard.
6. Author’s interview with Ralph Winter.
7. New York Post, Apr. 5, 1962.
8. Victor Navasky, Kennedy Justice (New York: Atheneum, 1971), p. 285.
9. J. Edward Lumbard to Sen. James Eastland, Apr. 5, 1962, Justice Dept.
10. Baltimore Afro-American, Apr. 30, 1962.
11. Nomination of Thurgood Marshall, Senate hearing, May 1, 1962.
12. Berl Bernhard interview with Thurgood Marshall, JFK Library.
13. Nomination of Thurgood Marshall, Senate hearing, July 12, 1962.
14. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
15. Jackie Robinson, “Birth Only Crime,” Philadelphia Tribune, 1962.
16. “The Marshall Delay,” New York Post, Aug. 26, 1962.
17. Nomination of Thurgood Marshall, Senate hearing, Aug. 17, 1962.
18. Ibid., Aug. 20, 1962.
19. Ibid., Aug. 24, 1962.
20. “Senate Unit’s Decision …,” Washington Star, Aug. 30, 1962.
21. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
22. “Senate Confirms …,” Washington Star, Sept. 12, 1962; Eric Sevareid, “Thurgood Marshall …,” Washington Star, Sept. 25, 1962.
; 23. Malcolm X to Judge Thurgood Marshall, July 1962, Marshall Papers, Library of Congress.
24. Gary Hengstler, ABA Journal, June 1992, p. 59.
25. Ralph Winter, Second Circuit Judiciary Conference speech, Sept. 6, 1991.
26. Author’s interview with James Freedman.
27. Author’s interview with William Coleman.
28. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling.
29. Author’s interview with Berl Bernhard.
30. Baltimore Sun, May 16, 1964.
31. George Dugan, “Marshall Quits …,” New York Times, Oct. 22, 1964, p. 23.
32. “The Impact of the Constitution,” undated, Marshall Papers, LC.
33. Walter Gellhorn interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
34. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
29. Johnson’s Man
1. Thurgood Marshall interview with T. H. Baker, LBJ Library.
2. Author’s interview with Ramsey Clark.
3. Randal Bland, Private Pressure on Public Law (Port Washington, N.Y.: National University Publications, 1973), p. 129.
4. Lady Bird Johnson Diary, July 2, 1965, LBJ Library.
5. Author’s interview with Nicholas Katzenbach.
6. Marshall interview with Baker.
7. New York Herald Tribune, July 30, 1965.
8. Testimony before the Senate Subcommittee of the Judiciary, July 29, 1965.
9. Statement of President Johnson, Aug. 24, 1965, LBJ Library.
10. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
11. Marshall to Johnson, Sept. 14, 1965; Johnson to Marshall, Sept. 20, 1965, LBJ Library.
12. Author’s interview with Grafton Gaines.
13. Author’s interview with Ralph Spritzer.
14. Author’s interview with Louis Claiborne.
15. Joseph Mohbat, “Marshall Finds …,” Washington Star, Dec. 26, 1965.
16. Baltimore Sun, Mar. 21, 1966.
17. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling; Sidney Zion, “Thurgood Marshall …,” New York Times Magazine, Aug. 22, 1965, p. 69.
18. Ponchitta Pierce, “The Solicitor General,” Ebony, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 67–77.
19. Zion, “Thurgood Marshall …,” p. 71.
20. New York Times, June 14, 1966; John MacKenzie, “Would Be …,” Washington Post, June 14, 1967, p. A13.
21. J. Edgar Hoover to Mary Watson, FBI files, Hoover O. and C, May 27, 1966.
22. C. D. DeLoach to Clyde Tolson, June 6, 1966, FBI file Hoover O. and C.
23. C. D. DeLoach to Clyde Tolson, June 14, 1966, FBI file Hoover O. and C.
24. Supplemental Memo to the Supreme Court [Black v. U.S.], FBI file Hoover O. and C.
25. Author’s interview with Harry McPherson.
26. Jet, Dec. 1, 1966.
27. Transcript of conversation between acting Attorney General Clark and President Johnson, Jan. 25, 1967, LBJ Library.
28. Transcript of a conversation between LBJ and Ramsey Clark, Jan. 25, 1967, LBJ Library.
29. Author’s interview with Jack Valenti.
30. Justice Marshall
1. Hoover to Marshall, personal copy, June 13, 1967, FBI file 77-88227-150.
2. “The Distorters,” Lynchburg News, Aug. 22, 1967, p. 6.
3. James Kilpatrick, “Marshall’s Appointment …,” Washington Star, June 18, 1967.
4. “Mr. Justice Marshall,” Newsweek, June 26, 1967, pp. 34–36; Washington Star, June 14, 1967.
5. Nomination of Thurgood Marshall, Senate Committee of the Judiciary, July 13–24, 1967.
6. Author’s interview with Grafton Gaines.
7. Author’s interview with William Brennan.
8. Thurgood Marshall’s interview with Dennis J. Hutchinson, Univ. of Chicago.
9. Black to Marshall, Nov. 11, 1967, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, Library of Congress.
10. Author’s interview with Ramsey Clark.
11. Notes of the President’s Meeting with Negro Leaders, Apr. 5, 1967, LBJ Library.
12. Larry Still, “President Warns …,” Washington Star, June 2, 1966.
13. Thurgood Marshall’s interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
14. Bruce A. Murphy, Fortas (New York: William Morrow, 1988), p. 299.
15. DeLoach to Tolson, Sept. 23, 1968, FBI file 77-88227-160.
16. Lady Bird Johnson Diary, Dec. 18, 1968, LBJ Library.
17. Baltimore Sun, Dec. 18, 1968.
18. Speech of Thurgood Marshall, May 4, 1969, Brown Collection, Yale Univ.
19. “Anarchy Is Anarchy,” Washington Star, May 6, 1969, p. A8.
20. Stanley v. Georgia (1968), Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
21. Author’s interview with Thurgood and Cecelia Marshall.
22. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling.
23. James Welsh, “Justice Marshall Buys …,” Washington Star, Nov. 13, 1968.
24. Author’s interview with Tyrone Brown.
25. Roland Evans and Robert Novak, New York Post, Jan. 31, 1970.
26. Tkach to Nixon, May 19, 1970, and Chapin to Nixon, May 22, 1970, RMN Library.
27. “Justice Marshall, ‘Not Feeling Well,’ ” Washington Star, June 14, 1971.
28. “Justice Doing Better …,” Baltimore Sun, July 18, 1972.
29. Thurgood Marshall to Simeon Booker, Nov. 20, 1972, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
30. Washington Star, Nov. 30, 1972.
31. Author’s interview with Aubrey Marshall, Jr.
32. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
33. Author’s interview with Stephen Saltzburg.
34. Furman v. Georgia, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
35. Author’s interview with Ralph Winter.
36. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
31. Backlash on the Court
1. McCorvey would later recant that story, admitting that she had become pregnant by her boyfriend.
2. Thurgood Marshall to Harry Blackmun, Dec. 12, 1972, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, Library of Congress.
3. William O. Douglas, The Court Years, 1939–1975 (New York: Random House, 1980), p. 251.
4. Procunier v. Martinez (1973).
5. San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973).
6. John Oakley to Thurgood Marshall, Mar. 30, 1973, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
7. Milliken v. Bradley (1974).
8. Antero Pietila, “Marshall ‘25 Talks …,” Baltimore Sun, June 5, 1975.
9. Gregg v. Georgia (1976).
10. Author’s interview with William Brennan.
11. John MacKenzie, “Marshall: Ready…,” Washington Post, Sept. 5, 1976, p. D6.
12. Lyle Denniston, “2 to 3 Weeks in Bed …,” Washington Star, July 7, 1976.
13. Beal v. Doe (1977).
14. Richard Smith, “Clerks of the Court,” Washington Post, Aug. 29, 1976, p. 15.
15. Author’s interview with Griffin Bell.
16. Author’s interview with Doris McCree.
17. Author’s interview with Daniel Friedman.
18. Author’s interview with Louis Claiborne.
19. Author’s interview with Phillip Spector.
20. Author’s interview with Byron White.
21. T. M. to Conference, Apr. 13, 1978, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
22. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978).
23. Stuart Auerbach, “Blacks Told …,” Washington Post, Nov. 19, 1978, p. A2.
24. Remarks of Thurgood Marshall, Second Circuit Judicial Conference, May 1979.
25. Bob Woodward and Scott Armstrong, The Brethren (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), pp. 258, 429.
26. Author’s interview with Karen Hastie Williams.
27. Author’s interview with Phillip Spector.
28. Author’s interview with Susan Bloch.
29. Au
thor’s interview with Warren Burger.
30. Author’s interview with Lewis Powell.
31. Author’s interview with William Rehnquist.
32. T. M. to Conference, July 31, 1980, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
33. Author’s interview with Cecelia Marshall.
34. “The Supreme CourtIs aLifeTerm, Period,” Washington Post, Jan. 25, 1981.
32. Hangin’ On
1. Author’s interview with Martha Minow.
2. Thurgood Marshall, “Outside Counsel,” American Lawyer, Aug. 1981, p. 37.
3. “Court’s Rulings Hinged …,” Washington Post, July 4, 1983.
4. Author’s interview with William Brennan.
5. Michael Reiss and Al Jean, “How to Write …,” National Lampoon, Feb. 1982, p. 60.
6. William Webster to Thurgood Marshall, Mar. 4, 1982, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, Library of Congress.
7. Fullilove v. Klutznick (1980).
8. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
9. T. M. to Toni House, June 24, 1986, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
10. New York Times, September 20, 1987.
11. Life, July 7, 1986.
12. T. M. to William Brennan, Feb. 28, 1986, Marshall Papers, Supreme Court, LC.
13. Author’s interview with Lewis Powell.
14. Author’s interview with Byron White.
15. Author’s interview with Monroe Dowling.
16. Remarks of Thurgood Marshall, Maui, Hawaii, May 6, 1987.
17. Thurgood Marshall interview with Carl Rowan, June 1987, WUSA-TV.
18. “Judicial Lockjaw,” Baltimore Sun, Sept. 13, 1987.
19. “Reagan Rejects Criticism …,” Washington Post, Sept. 10, 1987, p. A7.
20. Terry Eastland, “While Justice Sleeps,” National Review, Apr. 21, 1989, pp. 24–25.
21. Jacqueline Trescott, “Making Marshall’s …,” Washington Post, Sept. 15, 1988, p. C1.
22. Author’s interview with Susan Bloch.
23. Tony Mauro, “Rowan Drops …,” Legal Times, July 18, 1988, p. 12.
24. Thurgood Marshall interview with the Columbia Oral History Project.
25. Author’s interview with Antonin Scalia.
26. “Marshall: Brennan Is Irreplaceable,” Washington Post, July 27, 1990, p. A16.
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