80. Floyd Logan, letter to James Tate, July 13, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 22, TUUA.
81. Mark Bricklin, “ ‘ Negroes Can’t Wait for Neighborhoods to Be Integrated,’” Philadelphia Tribune, May 16, 1964.
82. Fred Bonaparte, “‘Neighborhood Rights Northern Version of States Rights’—NAACP,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 26, 1964. For similar critiques of neighborhood school groups as segregationists, see “Negro Likens Parents’ Group to Racist Unit,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 13, 1964.
83. On these white homeowners associations and housing discrimination, see chapter 1.
84. Matthew Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 122–23. On the use of the “freedom of choice” strategy in the South, see Charles Bolton, The Hardest Deal of All: The Battle over School Integration in Mississippi, 1870–1980 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 117–66; Kevin Kruse, “The Fight for ‘Freedom of Association’: Segregationist Rights and Resistance in Atlanta,” in Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction, ed. Clive Webb (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 99–116.
85. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 143.
86. For example, 78 percent of the students were the first generation in their families to pursue post–high school education, and 54 percent of students came from families that were below the city’s median income level. And whereas less than 1 percent of students at the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University were black students from Philadelphia high schools, black students made up 23 percent of the community college student body, and Puerto Rican students composed another 2 percent. Community College of Philadelphia, “Progress and Self-Evaluation Report Prepared for the Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, Middle States Association of College and Secondary Schools, November 1, 1967, Community College (CC) collection, Acc 378.154 C734s1, Community College of Philadelphia Archives (CCPA); Fellowship Commission, “Joint Meeting of the Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” July 8, 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA; Community College of Philadelphia, Civitas, A Yearbook, June 1967, CC collection, Acc A378.748 C734ci, CCPA.
87. James Clay, “West Philadelphia School’s New Gym to Be Named after Floyd Logan,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 30, 1979.
88. On the Girard College protest, see Countryman, Up South, 168–78; Art Peters, “NAACP Girds for Girard College Battle,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 5, 1965; Mark Bricklin, “1000 Police ‘Protect’ Girard College from 50 NAACP Pickets,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 4, 1965; Mark Bricklin and Fred Bonaparte, “Girard College Operating Illegally Leading Constitutional Atty. Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 8, 1965; Mark Bricklin, “No Settlement of Girard College Demonstration in Sight,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 15, 1965; Ray McCann, “Moore, Woods Lead 1000 on Girard College, Philadelphia Tribune, January 5, 1965; Jim Magee, “AMEs Stage 22-Block Girard March,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 22, 1965; “Experts See City Plan to Integrate Girard Doomed,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 18, 1965; Jacob Sherman, “NAACP Calls off Girard College Picketing as Lawsuit for 7 N. Phila. Boys Is Filed,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 18, 1965.
89. On these school protests, see Countryman, Up South, 223–57.
90. On Rizzo’s opposition to school desegregation efforts, see Orfield, Must We Bus? 160, 172, 191–95; Countryman, Up South, 255; Fred Hamilton, Rizzo (New York: Viking, 1973), 14, 106–10.
91. Orfield, Must We Bus? 172.
92. On the Philadelphia school desegregation case, see Orfield, Must We Bus? 172–75; Malik Morrison, “An Examination of Philadelphia’s School Desegregation Litigation,” Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education 3 (no. 1, 2004); School District of Philadelphia, “News Release: School Desegregation Case Almost 40 Years Old, Comes to End,” July 13, 2009, www.phila.k12.pa.us/desegregation/rel-deseg-case-7–09.pdf (accessed August 15, 2010); Valerie Russ, “Today: Hearing to Fight Jim Crow Education in Philly Schools: Officials Agree to Make Improvement Changes in ‘Racially Isolated’ Schools,” Philadelphia Daily News, July 13, 2009.
93. Danielle Allen, Talking to Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship since Brown v. Board of Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 5.
CHAPTER 5
1. Barlow, Voice Over, 211. On the importance of radio deejays in black communities, see Brian Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004); Mark Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit and Pride: From Black-Appeal to Radio Soul (New York: Praeger, 1988); Johnny Otis, Upside Your Head! Rhythm and Blues on Central Avenue (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1993); Johnny Otis, Listen to the Lambs (1968; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); George Lipsitz, Midnight at the Barrelhouse: The Johnny Otis Story (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); Magnificent Montague, Burn Baby! BURN! The Autobiography of Magnificent Montague (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Richard Stamz, Give ‘Em Soul, Richard! Race, Radio, and Rhythm and Blues in Chicago (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010); Louis Cantor, Wheelin’ on Beale: How WDIA-Memphis Became the Nation’s First All-Black Radio Station and Created the Sound That Changed America (New York: Pharos Books, 2002).
2. On the development of black-appeal radio, see Barlow, Voice Over, 108–33; Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit and Pride, 79–92; Robert Weems, Jr., Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 42–55.
3. Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, “Introduction,” in Groundwork: Local Black Freedom Movements in America, ed. Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 3.
4. Quoted in Barlow, Voice Over, 124.
5. Philadelphia deejay Georgie Woods used rock and roll to describe the artists who performed at his concerts and the music he played on his radio show. While this music can also be described as rhythm and blues, throughout this chapter I use rock and roll because it was the term preferred by Woods and the common term used by the Philadelphia Tribune. For example, see Georgie Woods, “Rock and Roll with Georgie Woods,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1955; “The George Woods Rock ‘‘n Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 23, 1955; “Rock ‘‘n Roll,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 30, 1955.
6. James Spady, Georgie Woods: I’m Only a Man (Philadelphia: Snack-Pac Book Division, 1992), 15–19, 40–41; Chris Perry III, “Leading Philly D-J’s Writing for Tribune,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 22, 1955.
7. Georgie Woods, “Rock and Roll with Georgie Woods,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1955.
8. “The George Woods Rock ‘N Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 23, 1955; “In Person George Woods Rock ‘N Roll,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 8, 1955; Archie Miller, “Fun and Thrills in Philly,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 29, 1955; “Big Rock and Roll Show at Mastbaum,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 10, 1955; “All New Rock ‘N Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 13, 1955.
9. John Albert, “Georgie Woods’ ‘Rock and Roll Show’ Draws 5,000 at Academy,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 18, 1955.
10. “Mystery Shrouds Rift between DeeJay George Woods and WHAT,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 15, 1955; “‘King’ Woods on New Throne,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1956.
11. “Georgie Woods Takes over Top Spot at Station WDAS,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 24, 1956.
12. Spady, Georgie Woods, 94–95.
13. Quoted in John Roberts, From Hucklebuck to Hip-Hop: Social Dance in the African American Community in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Odunde Inc., 1995), 46–47.
14. Guthrie Ramsey Jr., Race Music: Black Cultures from Bebop to Hip-Hop (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 4. On dance spaces in Philadelphia, see Benita Brown, “ ‘Boppin’ at Miss Mattie’s Place’: African-Americ
an Grassroots Dance Culture in North Philadelphia from the Speakeasy to the Uptown Theater during the 1960s” (Ph.D. diss, Temple University, 1999).
15. “Teenagers Welcome Disc Jockeys,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 12, 1954.
16. “Crediting the Philadelphia Tribune” [Re-Vels picture], Philadelphia Tribune, August 2, 1955; “Smiles of Appreciation” [Re-Vels picture], Philadelphia Tribune, May 19, 1956; Art Peters, “Huge Crowd Sees Talent Contest at Allen Homes Auditorium,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 14, 1957; “Guest Artists,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 17, 1957; “If You’re Confused,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 7, 1958; Dolores Lewis, “Philly Date Line,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 4, 1958.
17. Weldon McDougal, interviewed by author, March 27, 2006.
18. Anthony Gribin and Matthew Schiff, Doo-Wop: The Forgotten Third of Rock ‘N Roll (Iola, WI: Krause Publications, 1992)
19. On the development of vocal harmony groups, see Stuart Goosman, Group Harmony: The Black Urban Roots of Rhythm and Blues (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005); Robert Pruter, Doowop: The Chicago Scene (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996); Philip Groia, They All Sang on the Corner: A Second Look at New York City’s Rhythm and Blues Vocal Groups (New York: Phillie Dee Enterprises, 1983); Montague, Burn Baby! BURN! 67.
20. On the Philadelphia Tribune’s coverage of local singing groups, see “Appearing in Tribune Home Show” [Guytones picture], Philadelphia Tribune, May 22, 1956; “Quintet Hailed by Rock and Roll Fans,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 9, 1956; “Winners of Talent Show” [the Satellites photo], Philadelphia Tribune, March 19, 1957; “Dynatones,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 11, 1956; “Teen-Age ‘Superiors’ Debut on M.T. Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1957; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1957; Art Peters, “Rosen Homes Teenage Vocal Group Gets Recording Contract,” December 21, 1957; “Lee Andrews and the Hearts” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 19, 1958; Gil Zimmerman, “Person to Person,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 3, 1958; “Lee Andrews and the Hearts” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, June 7, 1958; “Fast Rising Vocal Group” [the Five Sounds photo], Philadelphia Tribune, February 10, 1959; “The Decisions,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 5, 1959; “Their Big Day” [Dee Jays photo], Philadelphia Tribune, January 12, 1960; Malcolm Poindexter, “Local Vocal Group Sets Their Sights on Stardom,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 15, 1960; “‘The Presidentials’ Set Sights on Instrumentals and Vocal Success,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 29, 1960; “The Da’prees” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, March 25, 1961; “Chirpers” [Joyettes photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 2, 1963; “Big Sound” [the Supremes photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 6, 1963; “The Exceptions,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 16, 1964; “Members of One of Philly’s Swingingest Young Groups” [Bobby and the Lovetones photo], Philadelphia Tribune, June 23, 1964.
21. On the recreation activities sponsored by black community centers and religious institutions, see V. P. Franklin, “Operation Street Corner: The Wharton Centre and the Juvenile Gang Problem in Philadelphia,” in W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and the City: The Philadelphia Negro and Its Legacy, ed. Michael Katz and Thomas Sugrue (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 195–215; “Sigma Iota Gamma Sorority” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1957; Theodore Graham, “300 Youths Enjoying St. Matthew’s Program,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 16, 1957; Muriel Bonner, “St. Monica’s Teens Have Active Program,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 23, 1957; Theodore Graham, “300 Youths, Adults Hail Program at Zion Church,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 30, 1957; Theodore Graham, “Youth Recreation Haven at Tasker Street Church,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1957; Theodore Graham, “Program of St. Charles Parish Asset to Youths,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 10, 1957; Theodore Graham, “Zion Community Center Meeting Youth Challenge,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 21, 1957; Graham, “Wharton Center Program Has Aided Over 55,000,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 21, 1957; “Rho Phi Omega Fraternity” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, December 31, 1957; Jack Saunders, “I Love a Parade,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1958; Charles Layne, “St. Rita’s Rock ’n’ Roll Revival a Real Swingeroo,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 26, 1961.
22. Weldon McDougal interview.
23. Eustace Gay, “Pioneer in TV Field Doing Marvelous Job Furnishing Youth with Recreation,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 11, 1956; Gary Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars,” The News Journal Papers (Wilmington, DE), January 28, 1986, D4.
24. “The NAACP Reports: WCAM (Radio),” August 7, 1955, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 21, folder 423, TUUA.
25. Otis Givens, interviewed by author, June 27, 2007.
26. Quoted in Roberts, From Hucklebuck to Hip-Hop, 37.
27. On the Philadelphia Tribune’s “Teen-Talk” coverage of Mitch Thomas’s show, see “They’re ‘Movin’ and Groovin,’” Philadelphia Tribune, July 31, 1956; Dolores Lewis, “Talking with Mitch,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1957; Dolores Lewis, “Stage Door Spotlight,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1957; “Teen-Age ‘Superiors’ Debut on M.T. Show” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1957; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 7, 1957; Dolores Lewis, “Philly Date Line,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 7, 1957; “Queen Lane Apartment Group” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, December 7, 1957; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 21, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 1, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 8, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Talk of the Teens,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 22, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 22, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 5, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 22, 1958; “Presented in Charity Show” [Mitch Thomas photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 22, 1958; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 26, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 29, 1958.
28. Art Peters, “Negroes Crack Barrier of Bandstand TV Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 5, 1957; “Couldn’t Keep Them Out” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, October 5, 1957; Delores Lewis, “Bobby Brooks’ Club Lists 25 Members,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 14, 1957.
29. On the crossover appeal of black-oriented radio, see Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South; Barlow, Voice Over; Susan Douglas, Listening In, 219–55.
30. As noted in chapter one, The Grady and Hurst Show was a televised version of Joe Grady and Ed Hurst’s 950 Club. The teens who danced during the 950 Club radio broadcast influenced WFIL’s decision to develop Bandstand. On The Grady and Hurst Show, see John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ’n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 28, 48.
31. “Black Philadelphia Memories,” dir. Trudi Brown (WHYY-TV12, 1999).
32. “Teen-Age ‘Superiors’ Debut on M.T. Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1957.
33. On Mitch Thomas’s concerts, see Archie Miller, “Fun and Thrills,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 4, 1956; “Rock ‘n Roll Show and Dance,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 19, 1958; “Swingin’ the Blues,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 5, 1958; “Mitch Thomas Show Attracts over 2000,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 18, 1958; “Don’t Miss the Mitch Thomas Rock and Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 2, 1960.
34. Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars.”
35. Ray Smith, interviewed by author, August 10, 2006.
36. Herbert Howard, Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting (New York: Arno Press, 1979), 142–47.
37. Ibid.
38. Barlow, Voice Over, 129; Giacomo Ortizano, “On Your Radio: A Descriptive History of Rhythm-and-Blues Radio during the 1950s” (Ph.D. diss, Ohio University, 1993), 391–423.
39. Art Peters, “Mitch Thomas Fired from TV Dance Party Job,” Philadelphia Trib
une, June 17, 1958.
40. Howard, Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting, 146.
41. Gerry Wilkerson, Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia, http://www.geocities.com/broadcastpioneers/whyy1957.html (accessed March 1, 2007).
42. Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars.”
43. J. Fred MacDonald, Blacks and White TV: Afro-Americans in Television Since 1948 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1983), 17–21, 57–64; Jannette Dates, “Commercial Television,” in Split Image: African Americans and the Mass Media, ed., Jannette Dates and William Barlow (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1993), 267–327; Christopher Lehman, A Critical History of Soul Train on Television (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2008), 28; Stamz, Give ‘Em Soul, Richard!, 62–63, 77–78; Barlow, Voice Over, 98–103; Clarence Williams, “JD Lewis Jr., A Living Broadcasting Legend,” ACE Magazine, October 2002, http://www.cbc-raleigh.com/capcom/news/2002/corporate_02/williams_lewis_story/williams_lewis_story.htm (accessed August 15, 2010).
44. Jackson, American Bandstand, 2–7.
45. Ibid., 30–32.
46. On the protests against rock and roll, see Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 90–113; Glenn Altschuler, All Shock Up: How Rock ’n’ Roll Changed America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 39, 72–77; Linda Martin and Kerry Seagrave, Anti–Rock: The Opposition to Rock ’n’ Roll (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993), 41–43; “Segregation Wants Ban on ‘Rock and Roll,’” New York Times, March 30, 1956; George Leonard, “Music or Madness?” Look, June 26, 1956, 48; “rock ’n’ Roll,” Time, July 23, 1956, 34; “White Council vs. Rock and Roll,” Newsweek, April 23, 1956. On white citizens’ councils, see Neil McMillen, The Citizens’ Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–64 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).
47. On the moral panic over juvenile delinquency, see James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America’s Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Thomas Doherty, Teenagers and Teenpics: The Juvenilization of American Movies in the 1950s (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 54–82; David Hadju, The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008). On moral panics and youth more broadly, see Joel Best, Threatened Children: Rhetoric and Concern about Child-Victims (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Gerard Jones, Killing Monsters: Why Children Need Fantasy, Super Heroes, and Make-Believe Violence (New York: Basic Books, 2003); John Springhall, Youth, Popular Culture, and Moral Panics (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999).
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