The Big, Bad Book of Botany

by Michael Largo

  Health Benefits

  Jackfruit is noted for its extraordinary wealth of vitamins and health benefits: it

  •protects the body against viruses.

  •regulates blood sugar.

  •protects the thyroid gland.

  •protects bones.

  •stabilizes blood pressure.

  •supports regular bowels.

  •acts against night blindness.

  •supports blood clotting.

  •prevents anemia and blood disorders, and strengthens blood cells.

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  Big and Juicy on Purpose

  The people of India have cultivated the jackfruit for nearly six thousand years, and to this day it remains an important commodity there. The fruit, in fact, is popular among farmers throughout Southeast Asia. In the wild, jackfruits count on animals for dispersal of their seeds. The juicy pods are a treat to many mammals, who then spread the seeds in their feces.

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  JASMINE

  Jasminum

  Lady Flower

  Jasmine is one of the most popular flowers worldwide, prized especially for its soothing fragrance. Since ancient times, the plant has represented pure beauty, in both music and poetry. Jasminum is a genus of vines and shrubs within Oleaceae, a family of about 200 species originating from tropical regions of Africa and Asia. Europe has only 1 native species of jasmine. People cultivate jasmine all over the world as an ornamental flower, but as an agricultural crop it produces high-quality essential oils and syrup for flavoring and for teas, and it is an ingredient in perfumes. Jasmine blooms with an air of mystery, as its flowers open only during the night—due, of course, to temperature oscillations—but the act only adds to its romantic mystique.

  Depending on the climate and species, jasmine can be either evergreen or deciduous; the latter variety loses its leaves in autumn. It grows as a shrub and has leaves of different sizes. On some types the leaves are either pinnate or trifoliate. Jasmine’s famous flowers are usually white and yellow, though in some cases they can be lightly reddish, and grow to about an inch in diameter. They bloom in clusters containing at least three flowers, but single flowers can also occur on the branches’ ends. Its calyx—the cuplike part of the flower—is bell shaped and produces a very gentle and fragrant aroma. After the flowering ends, the plant gives berries, which turn black when ripe.

  A Stalwart Specimen

  Jasmine is very suitable for gardens. All species of the plant prefer fertile, well-drained soil with full or partial sun exposure. Summer species need sheltered spots, full sun, and southern or southwestern exposure, while winter ones are more tolerant of partial shade and prefer southeast to northwest exposure. Most tender species require a minimum night temperature no lower than 55 degrees Fahrenheit. Though the plant can procreate with its seeds, gardeners would do best to use hardwood winter cuttings for growing outdoor varieties of jasmine, and internodal softwood, or semiripe cuttings taken during the spring and summer, for those more delicate specimens that need greenhouse environments to survive. In fact, many of the more heavily cultivated varieties are bred purposefully not to produce seeds.

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  Jasmine Culture

  Indian culture prizes jasmine for use in rituals, religious ceremonies, marriages, and more. Other countries use jasmine as a national symbol: In Pakistan, Jasminum officinale, known as chambeli, is the official national flower; in Indonesia, Jasminum sambac was adopted as the national symbol in 1990 and is the primary flower for weddings, especially on Java. Jasmine is also beloved in the Philippines, which adopted it as the country’s national flower in 1935. Hawaiian culture has dedicated countless songs to the flower, Thailand considers it a symbol of motherhood, and in Syria jasmine is the symbol of Damascus, also known as “City of Jasmine.” Jasmine is even now a common name for girls. In many Indonesian and Asian countries it is beautiful to see the white-reddish flower worn by a woman with black hair, traditionally above the left ear.

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  There is a great tradition in South and Southeast Asia of women wearing a flower of jasmine in their hair for symbolic reasons. In southern India, married women don the flower as a sort of wedding ring. Nowadays single women in the region may also wear it, though there remains a strong tradition against widows adorning themselves with the plant.

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  KHAT

  Catha edulis

  Chewing Euphoria

  A “chewing” plant popular among recreational drug users, khat contains a psychoactive alkaloid that causes effects similar to those of amphetamine (a stimulant), including euphoria, increased excitement, alertness, friendliness, confidence, ability to concentrate, intense flow of ideas, and so on. Some sources claim that the experiences one encounters after ingesting khat, which can vary wildly, depend on the social environment in which it’s used. Much like coca, the plant has a long tradition of use, dating back to the fourteenth century. It seems to have originated in or around Ethiopia, but explorers or traders transported it to the Arabian Peninsula, and beyond, where its use has spread rapidly. Khat leaves contain the stimulant, which is best extracted by chewing. Overuse can be addictive, similarly to nicotine and alcohol, which explains why khat is now illegal in many countries.

  Catha edulis is a slow-growing plant, reaching 3 to 15 feet in height, usually preferring arid conditions with temperatures of 40 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit; in equatorial areas some khat trees can grow up to 30 feet tall. Its leaves are evergreen, 2 to 4 inches long, and nearly as broad. It bears small flowers with five white petals that grow on short auxiliary cymes, or branches, which rise above the flower and are 4 inches long. The fruit of khat is an oblong three-valve capsule with one to three seeds inside. The plant reaches its full height after seven to eight years. Except for water and sun, it requires practically no maintenance. A month before the harvest, growers water the plant heavily to moisten and soften the stems and leaves, making the leaves all the more suitable for chewing. A healthy, mature khat plant will produce harvestable leaves four times per year.

  Khat is known by many other names, depending on the region. Here are the most common: African salad, Abyssinian tea, African tea, bushman’s tea, chafta, iubulu, kafta, mandoma, marongi, and in the West, Arabian tea.

  When chewing khat leaves, one experiences an immediate increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Within thirty minutes, euphoria as well as hyperactivity will set in, after which appetite will decrease radically. Long-term and continued use is dangerous and can cause serious depression and sporadic hallucinations. Risk of myocardial infarction, or heart attack, increases with use, though that can afflict even first-time users. In a number of cases, usage has induced permanent psychosis. Khat can cause oral cancer, liver damage, acute coronary syndrome stroke, and, of course, death.

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  Firsthand Encounter

  The initial experience of chewing khat is often one of euphoria. The reporter John Vidal described his experience with khat with friends during his travels through Ethiopia, which appeared in the British newspaper the Guardian on February 5, 2004. Here’s an interesting excerpt: “After ten minutes there was a slight numbing of the gums. After fifteen minutes, [my friend] started jabbering loudly. At twenty-five minutes, we were laughing uproariously. After forty-five minutes, Ethiopia’s trouble had slipped away, and a sense of well-being, alertness, euphoria, and lucidity took over.”

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  KIWI

  Actinidia deliciosa

  The Good Girl from China

  The kiwi, or kiwifruit, has an interesting history. Even today, it has only recently gained global popularity. The fruit has a bittersweet flavor and looks a bit odd—greenish yellow in color, a hairy, overgrown Ping-Pong ball shape—all of which belies its significant nutritional value. Kiwi is native to China, where it is known as yang tao and was declared a national fruit. In 1960 the Chinese officially changed its name to “Chinese gooseberry.” Today, kiwi is cultiva
ted worldwide; Italy, France, New Zealand, Chile, Japan, and the United States are leading commercial producers.

  Botanically, kiwi is a berry of a wood vine belonging to the genus Actinidia. The most famous cultivar group is Hayward, with oval, egg-size fruits 3 inches long and 4 inches in diameter. The kiwi’s skin is fibrous, and its greenish brown, bright green, or golden flesh contains rows of tiny, black, edible seeds. The fruit’s body is soft and has a unique sweet flavor.

  The kiwi grows best in temperate climates that have full summers of a few months or more. Commercial cultivation requires the aid of sturdy support structures, since the plant’s weak vines can’t support all of the fruit; kiwi farms can give several tons per hectare. Commercial crops usually employ a watering system for irrigation and frost protection during the spring. The vines of the kiwi require vigorous pruning, similar to grapevines; its first fruits are borne one year after planting, though yield decreases as the vines get older. They are usually replaced with new ones after the third year.

  Kiwi has male and female flowers on the same plant, allowing for dioecious pollination. Male flowers pollinate the females via wind or by brushing together as the vines entwine. In many cases, one male vine will grow next to three to eight female vines coming from the same root. Some cultivars are able to self-pollinate, but plants directly pollinated by male flowers always give a greater yield, and of higher quality. This is no easy feat, though; kiwi flowers are not so attractive to bees and other insects. Some producers resort to mechanically blowing collected pollen onto the female flowers.

  Kiwi is a great source of vitamins C, K, and E, as well as dietary fiber. A medium-size kiwi fruit provides about 46 calories. Since the fruit and skin also contain actinidain and flavonoids, however, some people have allergic reactions that result in mouth and throat irritation. New studies suggest that people allergic to bananas, pineapples, papayas, and latex are probably allergic to kiwi as well. Nevertheless, the health benefits of kiwi are worth exploring. Kiwi phytonutrients give us great antioxidant protection, control blood sugar, strengthen the cardiovascular system’s well-being, and protect against asthma and macular degeneration. With kiwi’s increasing renown and popularity, different varieties have become more available, including the so-called hardy kiwi and the silvervine kiwi, both of which have smooth skin and a size similar to a cherry.

  KUDZU

  Pueraria lobata

  A Plant of All Trades

  There is an old saying: nature has an answer for every problem and a remedy for every disease. Whatever you believe, kudzu—vilified as a weed in the southeastern United States—has some amazing properties. For example, although most experts claim there is no real cure for alcoholism, Pueraria lobata taken as an herbal remedy has a great record in helping people reduce their drinking. And that’s not all: kudzu is used in East Asia in treatments for many other health problems, such as deafness, diabetes, diabetic retinopathy, menopausal syndromes, gastroenteritis, and cardiovascular diseases, particularly angina.

  Kudzu also goes by the name Japanese arrowroot; some botanists believe its origins lie in Japan, where it is called kuzu. The plant belongs to the pea family of Fabaceae, in a subfamily called Faboideae. It is a climbing, trailing, and coiling vinelike edible plant, considered a noxious weed where it exists as an invasive species. Kudzu can climb trees and usually kills them by covering the tree’s leaves with its own. Sometimes kudzu causes serious ecological consequences, especially in the southern United States. Since it grows so rapidly, it “wins,” or destroys nearby plants, by what’s called interference competition. By climbing over native flora, it can effectively “steal” their light supply, thus preventing their ability to thrive—even killing them. Still, some use the plant for erosion control and for enhancing soil, since it can increase nitrogen content and transport minerals to the topsoil from deep below.

  Kudzu is also useful as animal food; in the United States, many goat farmers use a kudzu-based feed (containing about 18 percent crude protein and 60 percent digestible nutrient value). The plant also makes a good material for basketry and fiber arts; it has long runners and large vine material that is great for weaving. Kudzu fiber, originally called ko-hemp, was once important to the production of paper and clothing. The plant is also useful for making cellulosic ethanol, and in the United States kudzu is an ingredient in lotions, soaps, and compost.

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  Kudzu Food

  The plant’s roots contain a wealth of starch, a traditional food ingredient in East Asia. People from Vietnam usually flavor this starch with pomelo oil and use it as a refreshing drink. In Japan, the starch is called kuzoko and is traditionally used for dishes such as mizu, kuzumochi, and kuzuyu. Some have even made jellies from kudzu flowers. In East Asia, the plant has been used for making tinctures and tisanes for centuries. Practically the whole plant, including flowers, leaves, and roots, contains strong antioxidant elements.

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  According to a study by Harvard Medical School researcher David M. Penetar conducted in 2012, kudzu’s extract, called puerarin, did show some positive results for alcoholics. Penetar concluded: “People still drank, but they drank less.”

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  LAVENDER

  Lavandula

  The First Deodorant

  A splash of color and beauty, an intangible sweet aroma, an aura of calm and balance—these are the inherent qualities of one of nature’s most exquisite handiworks, the lavender plant. Lavender holds a special place for many, even for non–plant lovers, due to its pleasant, calming fragrance. From gardens to kitchens, healing to craftmaking, lavender is extremely versatile, and ranked among the top 40 ornamental and medicinal flowering plant species. The genus belongs to a family of aromatic mint herbs, Lamiaceae, well-known for flavor, fragrance, and medicinal use, and therefore holds great economic value. The familiar name lavender comes from the Old French word lavandre and Latin lavare (“to wash”), from its use as a soap and additive to baths since early antiquity. It was likely the first deodorant—some Stone Age “cavemen” might occasionally have smelled okay!

  The history of lavender stretches across thousands of years of human history. Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Arabs used the plant as a perfume and in mummification (by enfolding the dead bodies in a lavender-dipped covering). Early Greek societies regarded lavender as a holy herb, naming it nardus or nard in reference to a Syrian city, Naarda, where it grew abundantly. The Greeks used the plant in temples to prepare the holy essence nard, as well as to cure diseases varying from insomnia and backache to mental illness. During the Roman era, the popularity of lavender was at its peak and it became an esteemed commodity. Soon it became associated with soaps, baths, perfumes, insect repellent, sachets, and potpourris, and was used as a flavoring agent. Today it is most commonly known for its beauty and floral fragrance and has multiple uses, such as in aromatherapy, the perfume industry, food dishes, traditional medicine, and as an ornamental plant. Lavender is quite the sustainable crop, since it has the ability to grow under poor irrigation conditions and without the need of pesticide and fertilizers—what smells sweet to us, leaf-munching bugs don’t like!

  Lavender is native to the Old World and originates mainly from the Canary Islands, northern and eastern Africa, the Middle East, the Mediterranean, Southwest Asia, and southeast India. The plant is an extremely drought-tolerant shrub and grows well in dry, sandy, well-drained soils; it favors full sunlight. Although many members of the genus are cultivated extensively in temperate climates, it does bloom in other areas as well. In ideal conditions, lavender needs good drainage, since waterlogged soils and climates with high humidity make it susceptible to root rot or fungus contamination.

  The genus mainly comprises small, herbaceous, short-lived perennials with shallow roots. The perennials are slightly woody or shrubby at the base and belong to the category of small, woody shrubs. The plants are generally 1 to 3 feet tall and adorned with gray-green feathery leaves. The
shape and size of the leaf differ greatly across the genus. In some species leaves are simple, while in others they are pinnately toothed or have multiple pinnates that are dissected. Lavender leaves are generally roofed with a silvery gray covering of fine hairs or trichomes, botanically known as indumenta (a major source of essential oils). The flowers are borne in five to ten whorls (rings), which together form long, slender floral spikes, rising above the foliage. The spikes are usually unbranched and indeterminate, though in some species they are branched. The flowers in the wild species are highly scented, and blue, violet, or lilac in color. Different lavender species boast even more flower colors: white, pink, purple, blue, violet, yellow-green, and red. The flowers depend on insects, especially bees and butterflies, for pollination.

  Lavender has a long history in traditional and modern herbalism. The plant is grown commercially for large-scale production of its sweet essential oil, obtained through distillation from the flower spikes and comprising a complex mixture of phytochemicals, including terpenes (camphor), linalool, and linalyl acetate. Lavender oil serves as a base ingredient in many cosmetic items, such as perfumes, cleaning supplies, soaps, shaving creams, bath salts, lotions, and lip balms. The soothing and relaxing qualities of lavender oil are highly effective, primarily against headaches—it has proved very popular in aromatherapy to help reduce anxiety and stress. In addition, many use it as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, or pain reliever, as well as an ointment on insect bites and stings. Lavender is also effective for treating acne, sunburn, sunstroke, burns, and coughs and respiratory infections (asthmatic and bronchitic spasms).