The Big, Bad Book of Botany

by Michael Largo

  * * *

  •In Colombia, fresh leaves are used over infected wounds.

  •Brazilians heat leaves, squeeze out the juice, mix them with the Theobroma species, and make some intoxicating snuff.

  •In Fiji, fresh roots are used orally against asthma; Fijians also use seeds for rheumatism and hoarseness.

  •Ecuadorians use tobacco leaf juice to treat snakebites.

  •In Haiti, dried leaves are taken orally to prevent and cure pneumonia and bronchitis.

  •In India dried leaves in combination with other plants are used to ward off parasites.

  •As a Mayan legacy, in traditional Mexico, the entire plant of Nicotiana tabacum is considered a basic medicine. People use tobacco leaves in combination with other herbs, preparing them for a variety of different cures.

  * * *

  TOMATO

  Lycopersicon esculentum

  The Paradise Fruit

  It’s a well-known source of confusion—is a tomato a fruit or vegetable? Scientifically, as the ovary of the flower, a tomato is a fruit—actually a “berry,” in the strictest botanical sense. In botanical terms, a berry is the part of the plant produced by a fertilized flower and contains a seed. Nevertheless, whatever you call it, the tomato is a remarkable food plant, providing nutritional value and flavor to cuisines around the world. It belongs to the family Solanaceae (also known as the nightshade family). Earlier, its Latin name was Solanum lycopersicum. The French call it pomme d’amour, meaning “love apple,” while in Italy the tomato is sometimes named pomodoro or “golden apple,” probably referring to varieties of the plant that bear orange-yellow-tangerine-colored fruits. In the Balkans, its local names speak to a “divine” aspect: Serbs call it paradajz, derived from the English paradise, while Croats call it rajchica—the word’s root raj also means paradise. What a plant!

  Since it is a native species to South America, many believe the name tomato originates from the Aztecan word tomatl, meaning “the swelling fruit.” The plant was unknown to European populations until the Spanish colonizers transported its seeds from Mexico to Spain in the 1500s. Now there are about 7,500 varieties of tomato, which come in different sizes and shapes and for different uses. The nutritional and health benefits are spectacular: tomatoes support the cardiovascular system, strengthen bones, and help prevent cancer. It’s also an antioxidant, and reduces the danger of neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s. The tomato keeps the prostate disease-free and reduces the risk of obesity—and on top of all this, it offers a delicious taste.

  The plant grows 3 to 10 feet tall, with a weak stem that sprawls over the ground and can vine over other plants. Its stems are usually supported when cultivated. The tomato is a perennial in native habitats, but it is often grown outdoors as an annual in temperate climates; an average, nice red fruit weighs about 4 ounces, though there are species that can give fruits weighing as much as 2 pounds. The wild tomato cross-pollinates to reproduce, but after moving it from its native areas, the Spanish colonizers forgot to also take its traditional pollinator, the Halictid bee. In greenhouses, a tomato reproduces poorly on its own, so growers use an artificial wind and plant shaker (there is even a special vibrator for this purpose, called an “electric bee,” which is used manually) to spread pollen. In large commercial fields, farmers count on a special breed of bumblebees for pollination. The tomato is one of the main subjects of efforts to produce new varieties by means of genetic modification. Scientists have taken to adding pesticide compounds to the plant’s DNA, a move that has met with a backlash of resistance throughout the world, particularly since there are no long-range studies to prove these modification are not carcinogenic or cause some other unknown harm.

  There is one new such species grown in greenhouses in Great Britain. The new variety has been dubbed “Moneymaker,” which says everything about the motivation behind genetically modifying plants.

  Frenki Goes to the Balkans

  The Strumica region of Macedonia is considered to yield some of the world’s best tomatoes. Urban (and rural) legends say that until World War I, people from the region consumed tomatoes while they were still green, a practice met with astonishment by the arriving French army, who insisted the fruits be harvested only when mature and red. The Macedonians, of course, were pleasantly surprised, so they gave the plant a new name: frenki, meaning Frenchmen. Still, Macedonians often use green tomatoes soaked in water with salt for winter storage—a delicious dish in its own right.

  TULIP

  Tulipa

  Blooming Spectacle

  In springtime, a special flower blooms, blessed with a nearly perfect shape. Its colors are so intense, one cannot help but conclude that nature is the greatest artist of all. It comes in virtually all hues: red, yellow, rose, deep purple, and even one that looks black. This beauty is the tulip, but act fast, since the plant blooms its splendid prime for no more than ten to twelve days a year.

  Although associated mostly with the Netherlands, the cultivation of tulips began first in Persia, in the tenth century. During the rule of the Ottoman Empire, people spread the plant widely, calling it lale in Arabic, Turkish, Farsi, Macedonian, and Bulgarian. Its name comes from the word Allah, which is the reason tulips became a holy symbol in some Muslim countries. The tulip was originally known in Europe as tulipa or tulipant, which was taken from the French tulipe. The Persians called it delband, meaning “turban.” The tulip’s shape is similar to a turban’s, and it was very fashionable in the Ottoman Empire as an ornament for people to place in the folds and wraps of their turbans. Allegedly, when marketplaces were filled with people wearing turbans, the mass looked like a moving garden.

  Tulips are blooming perennials that grow from bulbs and, depending on the species, can grow up to 28 inches tall. Most tulips give only one flower per plant, although there are a few species, like the Tulipa turkestanica, that can produce multiple. The cup shapes and snowy flowers have three petals and three sepals, commonly called tepals. Colors are mostly different, depending on the variety, but there remains a global challenge to see who, if anyone, will be the first to produce a “pure blue” tulip, which no one has yet bred. The stems usually have few leaves, two to six, while some species have up to twelve; the leaf is strap-shaped, with a waxy coating and light green color.

  Tulips reproduce by seeds, offseting, or what’s called micropropagation, which is taking a tissue from the plant and basically cloning it. Offsetting is an asexual method that yields genetic clones, while seed propagation produces a bigger genetic variation, with subspecies or new hybrids. Most tulip species are able to be cross-pollinated with each other. However, commercial tulip cultivars are complex hybrids and are mostly sterile.

  Culture and Art

  In Old Persia, a gift of a yellow or red tulip was a declaration of love, and the plants retain a significant place in classical and modern Persian literature. The poet Musharrifu’d-din Saadi described paradise thus: “The murmur of a cool stream / bird song, ripe fruit in plenty / bright multicolored tulips and fragrant roses.” During the Ottoman Empire, the tulip held a double meaning, one of abundance and another (especially among the more religious) of frivolous indulgence.

  Today there are numerous tulip festivals worldwide, with the grandest in Netherlands, England, and Switzerland. North America also has annual festivals that display the flowers’ range of colorful beauty. The best U.S. shows are in Holland, Michigan; the Skagit Valley, Washington; and Pella, Iowa. Australia also celebrates tulips with festivals in September and October, springtime in the Southern Hemisphere.

  * * *

  Dutch Origins

  It was Carolus Clusius who first planted tulips in Europe, at the Imperial Garden in Vienna in 1573. Twenty years later, he also planted tulips in the newly established Hortus Botanicus at Leiden University. The result is that 1594 is used as the official date of the first flowering tulips in the Netherlands, though there are reports of tulips being privately cultivated in Amsterdam and Antwerp t
hree decades earlier. However, those first tulips at Leiden kicked off what is known as “Tulipmania” in the Netherlands, and there remains a significant tulip industry in that country to this day.

  * * *

  TUPELO TREE

  Nyssa

  The Nymph’s Gifts

  Have you ever tried tupelo honey? If not, know that sampling it may change your perception of how honey should taste. There are 10 species of tupelo trees inside the genus Nyssa, in the family Cornaceae; 5 of them are native to North America, while the others belong to East and South Asia. Nyssa sylvatica is grown for its beautiful foliage, especially in autumn, while Nyssa aquatica has some commercial uses. The name Nyssa is derived from the name in ancient Greek mythology for a water nymph, while the most common name, tupelo, comes from a Cree Indian phrase meaning “tree of the swamp.” The city where Elvis Presley was born, Tupelo, Mississippi, is named after this tree.

  These trees are sometimes called pioneer’s toothbrush, since people used to break the brittle twigs off smaller tupelos and use the bundle of woody fibers within to clean their teeth. Another name is bee gum, because hollow trees will sometimes house beehives. Tupelo can grow from 30 to 50 feet high and 15 to 25 feet wide. Its leaves are dark green and glossy, most intense in summer, followed by brilliant autumn shades of yellow-orange, yellow, bright red, scarlet, or purple. The tree grows slowly and prefers moist, acidic soils, with partial or full sun. As a food, tupelos fall prey to the larvae of species of the Lepidoptera order, but the plant is resistant against most other pests.

  Many have used the tupelo for artistic woodcarving and other commercial purposes, such as decorative furniture inlay, as well as for wood paneling and for making veneer. When pulped, tupelo wood makes for high-quality book and magazine papers. It’s an elegant and gentle tree, used in only special products, so it’s no surprise it was bestowed the name of the beautifully delicate Greek nymph.

  * * *

  Truly Golden

  The most valuable and tasty tupelo honey comes from the Nyssa ogeche species, found in the southeastern United States and across the Gulf Coast area. The honey is very light and mild tasting; it’s hard to abide any other type of honey after tasting this blend. In Florida, during the tupelo blooming season, beekeepers keep the hives near the river swamps and actually place the hives on floats or platforms to increase honey production. The monofloral honey from Nyssa ogeche has a very high ratio of glucose and fructose, so it doesn’t crystallize, which is an additional quality that helps to produce its special blend of flavor. The Apalachicola River in Florida is often considered the center for the best tupelo honey. The most expensive honey originates from this region, certified by special pollen analysis. In a good year, a group of specialized beekeepers can earn up to $1 million from one tupelo honey crop.

  And as a side note, listen to “Tupelo Honey,” the song by Van Morrison, while tasting this honey for an equally sweet sensation.

  * * *

  UNICORN PLANT

  Proboscidea louisianica

  The Oily Devil

  Though its precise place of origin is unknown, many consider the unicorn plant a native of the southwestern United States and Mexico. It now grows in other regions, including South Africa, Australia, and Europe. The unicorn tree has a special means of seed dispersal, since it produces fruits with hooks on them that attach to the fur of passing animals. This so-called Velcro method helps the plant spread its seeds far and wide from the parent tree.

  The unicorn plant’s many other nicknames are pretty exotic as well, including devil’s claw, purple flower devil’s claw, goat’s head, ram’s horn, aphid trap, and elephant tusks. Clearly it’s a very inspiring tree for creative minds! No matter what it’s called, it belongs to the family Martyniaceae. Its stems reach up to 2½ feet long, opposed by leaves up to 1 foot long. The flowers are lavender, or purple-cream, or sometimes pinkish purple with yellowish nectar holders. Each plant yields about eighty fruits, which are dehiscent capsules (meaning they naturally split open) and feature long, curving, narrow beaks. When the fruit gets dry, it breaks in two horn-shaped parts. The seeds inside these pods are black or white, and are rich in oil—the same substance also present as oil droplets in the herb’s glandular hairs gives the plant quite a slippery feel. As its oil vaporizes, the whole area around the plant is overcome with a strong, acrid odor.

  The plant grows in diverse soil types and easily adapts to all kinds of habitats, even dumps. It’s found in feedlots, pastures, and cultivated fields. It’s detrimental to certain agricultural crops, particularly cotton, since its oil production can cause drastic changes to the content of surrounding soil. This “devil” of a plant can resist many herbicides, and the only way to eliminate it is by manually yanking it from the ground.

  Even though it is very adaptable to varied soil types, including sandy, loamy, or clay, Proboscidea louisianica prefers well-drained landscapes with lots of moisture, and can’t grow very well in shady areas. When there are no bees or other species particularly fond of its nectar to perform pollination, the unicorn plant simply self-pollinates. The plant perhaps has no special enemies, most likely because of its oily appearance and odor. More than most, the unicorn plant is a well-equipped survivor.

  * * *

  Uses

  The “devil” is edible, and many pickle its young green fruits. Native Americans used its seeds for food, too. The plant has found its most prevalent use in basketry, particularly since its husks are suitable to shape the basket forms, and serve as good sewing implements. The plant was used traditionally for basket weaving by the Apache, Hopi, Kawaiisu, and Havasupai, and the Tohono Indians cultivated it as well—using its dark, dried fruits for basketry ornaments. In this context, people grow the unicorn plant not only for an ornament, and a garden novelty, but also for floral arrangements.

  * * *

  VANILLA

  Vanilla planifolia

  A Royal Flavor

  Vanilla is certainly one of the most likable flavors worldwide, first used by ancient Aztecs (probably in Mexico, which is its place of origin) to flavor drinks made of cocoa and honey, named xocolatl. The plant grows wild in tropical forests and belongs to one of the largest and oldest families of flowering plants, Orchidaceae. It produces high amounts of vanillin and is the only one of the orchid species widely cultivated in agriculture. Nearly 95 percent of the traded vanilla comes from this very species, Vanilla planifolia. Today the plant grows wild mostly in Central America and the West Indies, as it prefers hot, tropical climates. The greatest harvest yields are from Mexico.

  Like all other plants from the Vanilla genus, planifolia is a vine, using its fleshy roots to strongly support itself while growing. Its flowers are greenish yellow, 2 inches in diameter, and last only one day. Though twenty-four hours may seem a small window in which to reproduce, vanilla is a self-fertilizing plant, so pollination is achieved by simply transferring the pollen from anthers to stigmata. If not pollinated, for some reason the flower dies the next day and the parent plant has no hope of reproducing again. In the wild, vanilla flowers have less than 1 percent chance of pollination, yet the species has survived for countless eons. In commercial growing, farmers ensure reproduction by hand or with mechanical aid.

  Vanilla fruits are pods 6 to 9 inches long, sometimes also called beans, though that term is scientifically erroneous. Nevertheless, fruits come only from mature plants, usually when the plant is at least 10 feet tall. Its fruit or bean pods mature after five months, before farmers harvest and cure them. The curing dries and ferments the pods in order to ensure minimum loss of their essential oils. They then make vanilla extract from this portion of the herb. Pods are useful whole or split into tiny pieces, which are then infused into a liquid.

  Vanilla planifolia got its name in 1808, though Montezuma first introduced the plant to Cortez in 1520, after which the conquistador transported it to Europe, where it was immediately recognized as a highly valuable plant. The Spanish word vainilla rep
resents a diminutive of vaina, meaning “sheath” or “pod,” inspired by the sheathlike shape of vanilla fruits.

  Best Vanilla

  Vanilla from Madagascar and Réunion (also called Bourbon vanilla) is highly prized for its most intensive, balanced, and “dark” flavor. Mexican vanilla is a cheaper variety and has a fresher, softer flavor. Tahitian vanilla, which is very rare, stems from the species Vanilla tahitensis and boasts a more floral vanilla fragrance.

  * * *

  Have a Vanilla Smoke

  The vanilla plant has some nonculinary uses, including aromatization of perfumes, liqueurs, and cigars. Europeans usually use the bean, while Americans prefer the extract. Some substances marketed as “vanilla flavor” do not contain any trace of the plant, but rather a mixture of synthesized clove oil (or eugenol), wastepaper pulp, and coumarin, which is found in tonka beans. So read the label to make sure you’re getting the real thing!

  * * *

  VARNISH TREE

  Toxicodendron vernicifluum

  Poison Art

  The varnish tree grows in China, Japan, Korea, and the Himalayas. Cultivated for its toxic sap, the varnish tree yields the base for a high-quality, durable lacquer or varnish. The sap contains the allergenic urushiol (from the Japanese word urushi, lacquer), which is also found in poison ivy and causes skin rashes if touched.