The Russian Revolution
Page 133
August 27: Supplementary Russo-German Treaty signed, with secret clauses.
August 30: Early in the day, M. S. Uritskii, head of Petrograd Cheka, assassinated; in the evening, Fannie Kaplan shoots Lenin.
September 4: Instruction ordering the taking of hostages.
September 5: Red Terror officially launched; massacres of prisoners and hostages throughout Bolshevik-controlled Russia.
October 21: All able-bodied Soviet citizens required to register with government employment agencies.
October 30: 10-billion-ruble contribution imposed on the urban and village “bourgeoisie.”
Early November: Soviet Embassy expelled from Berlin.
November 13: Soviet Government renounces Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and Supplementary Treaty.
December 2: Committees of the Poor dissolved.
December 10: “Labor Code” issued.
1919
January: Tax in kind (
prodrazvërstka
) introduced for peasants.
January 7:
Uezd
Chekas abolished.
February 17: Dzerzhinskii announces changes in operations of the Cheka: calls for creation of concentration camps.
March: New party program adopted; party renamed Russian Communist Party; creation of Politburo, Orgburo, and Secretariat.
March 16: Consumer communes introduced.
April 11: Regulations concerning concentration camps.
May 15: Government authorizes People’s Bank to issue as many bank notes as required.
December 27: Commission on Labor Obligation created under Trotsky: beginning of “militarization of labor.”
NOTES
Chapter 1
1.
Somerset Maugham,
Ashenden
(New York, 1941), vii–viii.
2.
Otto Hoetzsch,
Russland
(Göttingen, 1915), 309–11.
3.
NV
, No. 8, 240 (February 4, 1899), 3.
4.
On these events, see Samuel Kassow,
The Russian University in Crisis: 1899–1911
, Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1976, 130–47;
Byloe
, No. 16 (1921), 125–28, and M. Mogilianskii,
Byloe
, No. 24 (1924), 117–25.
5.
Byloe
, No. 16, 127; N. Cherevanin in
OD
, I, 267.
6.
Kassow,
The Russian University
, 135.
7.
Ibid
., 141–43.
8.
Byloe
, No. 16, 127–28.
9.
Ibid.
, 128.
10. Kassow, The Russian University, 155–56.
11. S. Iu. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II (Moscow, 1960), 199.
12. Ludwig Bazylow, Polityka wewnetrzna caratu (Warsaw, 1966), 197; E. N. Trubetskoi in Josef Melnik, Russen über Russland (Frankfurt, 1906), 17–18.
13. Cited in Edward H. Judge, Plehve (Syracuse, N.Y., 1983), 19.
14. Melnik, Russen, 18, 48.
15. See below, Chap. 3.
16. Judge, Plehve, 12–37.
17. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 34.
18. Judge, Plehve, 59.
19. On this, see below, Chap. 9.
20. Rabochee delo, No. 1 (1899), 24–34.
21. On him: Jeremiah Schneiderman, Sergei Zubatov and Revolutionary Marxism (Ithaca, N.Y., 1976).
22. V. I. Gurko, Features and Figures of the Past (Stanford, Calif., 1939), 116.
23. Dietrich Geyer, Der russische Imperialismus (Göttingen, 1977), 151; Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905 (Stanford, Calif., 1988), 44.
24. Andrew Malozemoff, Russian Far Eastern Policy, 1881–1904 (Berkeley, Calif., 1958), 201–2.
25. Ibid., 221.
26. Osvobozhdenie, III, No. 52 (July 19/August 1, 1904), 33.
27. [A. V. Bogdanovich], Tri poslednikh samoderzhtsa (Moscow-Leningrad, 1924), 335.
28. IZ, No. 77 (1965), 241.
29. Ibid., 241–42; also Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 324.
30. Dmitrii N. Shipov, Vospominaniia i dumy o perezhitom (Moscow, 1918), 240.
31. Shipov, Vospominaniia, 241; see also Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Left (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 361–62.
32. S. E. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia (Berlin, [1938]), 17–18.
33. E.g., [Bogdanovich], Tri, 299.
34. The protocols have been published under the title Chastnoe soveshchanie zemskikh deiatelei prosikhodivshee 6, 7, 8 i 9 noiabria 1904 g. v S.-Petersburge (Moscow, 1905). See further Shipov, Vospominaniia, 258–78; Shmuel Galai, The Liberation Movement in Russia, 1900–1905 (Cambridge, 1973), 214–21; and Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Left, 368–70.
35. Shipov, Vospominaniia, 269.
36. Ascher, Revolution, 66–68.
37. On the banquet campaign, see I. P. Belokonskii, Zemskoe dvizhenie (Moscow, 1914), 238–57, and Terence Emmons in California Slavic Studies, No. 10 (1977), 45–86.
38. Emmons, loc. cit., 57.
39. New York Public Library: Russia, MVD, Department Politsii, Sbornik sekretnykh tsir-kuliarov, December 10, 1904, shelf mark *QGF/+.
40. Shipov, Vospominaniia, 278–81; E. D. Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia i tsarizm v pervoi russkoi revoliutsii (Moscow, 1970), 37.
41. This document, which remains unpublished, is summarized in Andrew M. Verner, Nicholas II and the Role of the Autocrat during the First Russian Revolution, 1904–1907, Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1986, 192–98.
42. Ibid., 193–94.
43. Cited in Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia, 41.
44. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 331–32; Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia, 42–43.
45. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 335.
46. Text in G. G. Savich, ed., Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi Rossii (St. Petersburg, 1907), 6–8.
47. Bazylow, Polityka wewnetrzna, 333.
48. Osvobozhdenie, No. 63 (January 7/20, 1905), 221.
49. On him, see his memoirs: George Gapon, The Story of My Life (New York, 1906); also D. Venediktov, Georgii Gapon, 2nd ed. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1931), and Walter Sablinsky, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Princeton, N.J., 1976).
50. Bazylow, Polityka wewnetrzna, 347.
51. Sablinsky, The Road, 117.
52. Ibid., 130–31.
53. L. Ia. Gurevich in Byloe, No. 1 (1906), 197–98.
54. Ascher, Revolution, 82–83; Verner, Nicholas II, 226–27.
55. The fullest text of the petition: N. S. Trusova, ed., Nachalo pervoi russkoi revoliutsii: ianvar–mart 1905 goda (Moscow, 1955), 28–30. An English translation is in Sablinsky, The Road, 344–49.
56. Diary of Sviatopolk-Mirskaia, IZ, No. 77 (1965), 273; A. N. Pankratova et al, eds., Revoliutsiia 1905–1907 gg. v Rossii: Dokumenty i materialy, IV, Pt. 1 (Moscow, 1961), 35.
57. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 340.
58. Trusova, Nachalo, 52.
59. Verner, Nicholas II, 259; Sviatopolk-Mirskaia in IZ, No. 77 (1965), 247.
60. Ascher, Revolution, 94, 138, 151.
61. Ibid., 157–60.
62. Ibid., 172.
63. Kazimierz Niedzielski, Z burzliwych dni, 1904–1905 (Warsaw, 1916), 240–41.
64. Ascher, Revolution, 120.
65. Solomon M. Schwarz, The Russian Revolution of 1905 (Chicago, 1967), 123.
66. Sviatopolk-Mirskaia in IZ, No. 77 (1965), 247.
67. S. Iu. Vitte, Vospominaniia, (Moscow, 1960), III, 143–44.
68. KA, No. 1/8 (1925), 51–69.
69. Ibid., 65.
70. Savich, Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi, 11–14.
71. Ascher, Revolution, 114.
72. Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia, 57.
73. V. A. Maklakov, Iz vospominanii (New York, 1954), 324–25. The fullest account of this organization is Jonathan E. Sanders’s The
Union of Unions, Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1985.
74. Galai, Liberation Movement, 245–48.
75. Shmuel Galai in Jahrbücher, No. 24 (1976), 522–23.
76. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 388.
77. Ibid., II, 305.
78. Ibid., 397.
79. Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia, 68.
80. Ibid., 69.
81. Text of Trubetskoi’s address is in Pravitel’stvennyi vestnik, June 8, 1905, p. 1. English translation: Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Sergei N. Trubetskoi (Belmont, Mass., 1976), 150–54.
82. Osvobozhdenie, No. 75 (1905), 432.
83. SZ, No. 65 (1937), 226.
84. Petergofskoe soveshchanie o proekte Gosudarstvennoi Dumy (Berlin, n.d.).
85. Text in Savich, Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi, 21–23. Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia, 105–8; Ascher, Revolution, 177–81. Its antecedents are dealt with in Gilbert S. Doktorow, The Introduction of Parliamentary Institutions in Russia during the Revolution of 1905–1907, Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1975.
86. Ascher, Revolution, 179.
87. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 482.
88. Verner, Nicholas II, 353.
89. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 488.
90. Chermenskii, Burzhuaziia, 91–92.
91. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 551.
92. Galai, Liberation Movement, 259; Sanders, Union of Unions, 1030–46.
93. RV, No. 232 (August 27, 1905), 1.
94. J. D. Morison in F.-X. Coquin and C. Gervais-Francelle, eds., 1905: La Première Révolution Russe (Paris, 1986), 68–69; Ascher, Revolution, 201.
95. Ascher, Revolution, 198.
96. Iskra, No. 107 (July 29, 1905), 1; emphasis supplied.
97. Trubetskoi in Melnik, Russen, 16–17.
98. Kassow, The Russian University, 381–83; Morison in Coquin and Gervais-Francelle, 1905, 68–69; V. Voitinskii, Gody pobed i porazhenii, I (Berlin, 1923), 57–63.
99. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 544, 626–27.
100. Ascher, Revolution, 211; Oskar Anweiler, The Soviets (New York, 1974), 43; IZ, No. 11 (1941), 3–5.
101. Kassow, The Russian University, 386.
102. KA, No. 11–12 (1925), 55–56.
103. N. D. Obolenskii in Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 26.
104. A. L. Sidorov, ed., Vysshyi pod”ëm revoliutsii 1905–1907 gg.: vooruzhonnoe vosstanie, noiabr’–dekabr’ 1905 goda, I (Moscow, 1955), 47.
105. N. I. Sidorov, ed., 1905 god v Peterburge, II (Leningrad, 1925), 101–2.
106. KA, No. 3/22 (1927), 173.
107. P. N. Miliukov, Vospominaniia, 1859–1917, II (New York, 1955), 342–43.
108. Schwarz, Russian Revolution, 333; L. Geller and N. Rovenskaia, eds., Peterburgskii i Moskovskii Sovety Rabochikh Deputatov 1905 g. (v dokumentakh) (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 9.
109. Anweiler, Soviets, 45.
110. Ibid., 45.
111. Sidorov, 1905 god, II, 102.
112. Voitinskii, Gody pobed, I, 93–94; IZ, No. 11 (1941), 7.
113. Geller and Rovenskaia, Peterburgskii i Moskovskii Sovety, 11.
114. Ascher, Revolution, 223.
115. See below, Chap. 8.
116. Sidorov, 1905 god, II, 5.
117. Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 14–15.
118. Ibid.
119. A. S. Alekseev in Iuridicheskii vestnik, XI/III (1915), 39.
120. Byloe, No. 14 (1919), 109.
121. Ibid., 110–11.
122. Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 17, 41–42.
123. Savich, Novyi gosudarstvennyi stroi, 25–27.
124. Geller and Rovenskaia, Peterburgskii i Moskovskii Sovety, 29–31.
125. M. Szeftel, The Russian Constitution of April 23, 1906 (Brussels, 1976), 33–35.
126. KA, No.3/22 (1927), 168.
127. Ascher, Revolution, 229.
128. Verner, Nicholas II, 434.
129. Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 68–69.
130. Verner, Nicholas II, 438.
131. Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 68, no.
132. Verner, Nicholas II, 438–40.
133. KA, No. 3/22 (1927), 187.
134. Ascher, Revolution, 253–62. On this, see further A. Linden, ed., Die Judenpogrome in Russland (Köln-Leipzig, 1910).
135. Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 85–88.
136. KA, No. 3/22 (1927), 169.
137. See Agrarnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v 1905–1906 gg., 2 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1908), passim.
138. Roberta T. Manning, The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government (Princeton, N.J., 1982), 155–57.
139. Agrarnoe dvizhenie, II, 30.
140. Manning, Crisis, 142.
141. KA, No. 3/22 (1927), 173–74.
142. Anweiler, Soviets, 59–60.
143. On him, see below, Chap. 9.
144. Anweiler, Soviets, 60; Ascher, Revolution, 301.
145. Ascher, Revolution, 108.
146. Vitte, Vospominaniia, III, 218–51.
Chapter 2
1.
Jules Legras,
Au Pays Russe
(Paris, 1895), 356.
2.
A. D. Gradovskii,
Sobranie sochinenii
, 2nd ed., VII (St. Petersburg, 1907), 1–2.
3.
See V. O. Kliuchevskii,
Skazaniia inostrantsev o Moskovskom gosudarstve
(Moscow, 1918), and Karl H. Ruffman,
Das Russlandbild im England Shakespeares
(Göttingen, 1952).
4.
A. Leroy-Beaulieu,
The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians
, II (New York-London, 1898), 10.
5.
Dnevnik Gosudarstvennogo Sekretariia A. A. Polovtsova
, II (Moscow, 1966), 70.
6.
S. Iu. Vitte,
Samoderzhavie i zemstvo
, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart, 1903), 206, citing Mackenzie Wallace.
7.
S. S. Oldenburg,
Tsarstvovanie Imperatora Nikolaia II
, I (Belgrade, 1939), 41.
8.
See above, p. 27.
9.
Dnevnik V. N. Lamzdorfa (1886–1890
) (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 140.
10. Ibid., 249–51.
11. S. Iu. Vitte, Vospominaniia, I (Moscow, 1960), 434–35; Andrew M. Verner, Nicholas II and the Role of the Autocrat during the First Russian Revolution, 1904–1907, Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1986, 103.
12. KA, No.3/46 (1931), 10.
13. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 585–86.
14. V. Burtsev, Za sto let, I (London, 1897), 264.
15. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 266–67.
16. Cited by V. Kantorovich in Byloe, No. 22 (1923), 208–9.
17. Ibid., 206.
18. Vitte, Vospominaniia, II, 328.
19. Ibid., 474.
20. Kantorovich in Byloe, No. 22 (1923), 228.
21. Hans-Joachim Torke in Forschungen, XIII (1967), 227, 257.
22. N. M. Korkunov, Russkoe gosudarstvennoe pravo, 2nd ed., II (St. Petersburg, 1897), 552; Brogkauz & Efron, XXX, 441–42.
23. T. Taranovsky in Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXVI, No. 2–3 (1984), 213–14.
24. Ibid., 212–13.
25. Theodore Taranovsky, The Politics of Counter-Reform: Autocracy and Bureaucracy in the Reign of Alexander III, 1881–1894, Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1976.
26. Leroy-Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars, II, 93–94.
27. V. A. Evreinov, Grazhdanskoe sudoproizvodstvo v Rossii (St. Petersburg, 1887), 39–41, 54; Torke in Forschungen, 14, 56.
28. P. A. Zaionchkovskii, Pravitel’stvennyi apparat samoderzhavnoi Rossii v XIX v. (Moscow, 1978), 90.
29. Ibid., 95–96.
30. N. A. Maklakov in Padenie, V, 207.
31. Leroy-Beaulieu, Empire of the Tsars, II, 82–83.
32. Ibid., 79.
33. MG, No. 10 (1908), 29–30.
34. M
. N. Nikonov cited in Dnevnik Lamzdorfa, 135.
35. Pierre Dolgoroukov [Dolgorukov], La Vérité sur la Russie (Paris, 1860), 16.
36. Bernard Pares, Russia and Reform (London, 1907), 154.
37. See S. Frederick Starr, Decentralization and Self-Government in Russia, 1830–1870 (Princeton, N.J., 1972).
38. Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (London-New York, 1974), 281.
39. Robert E. Jones, The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility, 1762–1785 (Princeton, N.J., 1973), 182.
40. N. A. Rubakin cited in Neil B. Weissman, Reform in Tsarist Russia (New Brunswick, N.J., 1981), 11.
41. S. E. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia, (Berlin, [1938]), 98–99.
42. Walter M. Pintner in SR, XXIX, No. 3 (1970), 432.
43. F. I. Dan, Proiskhozhdenie Bol’shevizma (New York, 1946), 443–44.
44. Taranovsky, Politics of Counter-Reform, 227.
45. Zapiski Aleksandra Ivanovicha Kosheleva (1812–1883 gody) (Berlin, 1884), 31–32.
46. Ministerstvo Vnutrennykh Del, Istoricheskii ocherk (St. Petersburg, 1901), 48–49.
47. KA, No. 3/22 (1927), 169.
48. Hans Rogger in SR, No. 4 (1966), 626.
49. Dnevnik P. A. Valueva, I (Moscow, 1961), 100, entry dated April 14, 1861.
50. Taranovsky, Politics of Counter-Reform, 234.
51. Cited in Zaionchkovskii, Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie, 237.
52. They are described in Pipes, Russia, 305–7.
53. Memorandum of October 30, 1885, cited in Zaionchkovskii, Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie, 236–39.
54. It is the subject of Daniel T. Orlovsky’s The Limits of Reform: The Ministry of Internal Affairs in Imperial Russia, 1802–1881 (Cambridge, Mass., 1981).
55. P. A. Zaionchkovskii, Krizis samoderzhaviia na rubezhe 1870–1880kh godov (Moscow, 1964), 395–96.
56. Weissman, Reform, 48.
57. Ibid., 62.
58. P. P. Zavarzin, Rabota tainoi politsii (Paris, 1924), 11–13.
59. Brogkauz & Efron, XXXVII, 357.
60. Geoffrey Drage, Russian Affairs (London, 1904), 243.
61. Theodore H. Von Laue, Sergei Witte and the Industrialization of Russia (London-New York, 1963), 34–35.
62. Ibid., 180.
63. Leo Pasvolsky and Harold G. Moulton, Russian Debts and Russian Reconstruction (New York, 1924), 16.
64. Ibid., 1; John P. McKay, Pioneers for Profit (Chicago, 1970), 380.
65. McKay, Pioneers, 37.
66. P. B. Ol, Inostrannye kapitaly v Rossii (Petrograd, 1922), 8–9.
67. Von Laue, Sergei Witte, 274–75.
68. Edward C. Kirkland, A History of American Economic Life, 3rd ed. (New York, 1951), 541.