The Russian Revolution
Page 143
55. NS, No. 48 (June 19,1918) (not available to me), as reported in NV, No. 97/121 (June 29,1918), 3; cf. Lenin, Khronika, V, 552.
56. NV, No. 100/124 (June 23, 1918), 2.
57. M. K. Diterikhs, Ubiistvo tsarskoi sem’i i chlenov doma Romanovykh na Urale, I (Vladivostok, 1922), 61.
58. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 202. Avdeev mistakenly identifies him as an Austrian.
59. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 17–18.
60. Serge Smirnoff, Autour de l’ Assassinat des Grand-Ducs (Paris, 1928), 14–15,114n., 92–93, 104, 143. Bykov (“Poslednie dni,” 18) confirms that Smirnoff was arrested with Mičič (whom he mistakenly calls “Migich”).
61. Rodina, No. 4 (1989), 95.
62. Avdeev in KN, No. 5 (1928), 202.
63. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 147.
64. Trotsky’s Diary, loc. cit., p. III, entry dated April 9, 1935.
65. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 106.
66. Dekrety, III, 22.
67. Ibid. 21–22; SUiR, No. 583, 611–12.
68. Sokolov Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Box 7.
69. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 138.
70. Ibid; Wilton, The Last Days, 82.
71. Lenin, Khronika, V, 580, 616.
72. Kasvinov, Dvadsal’ tri stupeni, 489; Bykov, Poslednie dni, 114.
73. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 20.
74. F. McCullagh in Nineteenth Century and After, No. 123 (September 1920), 417.
75. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 230–38; Ogonëk, No. 21 (1989), 30–32.
76. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 224–29.
77. Ogonëk, No. 21 (1989), 30.
78. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 232.
79. Ibid, 219.
80. Ibid., 222–23.
81. Ibid., 254.
82. Ogonëk, No. 21 (1989), 30–31.
83. Deposition of P. V. Kukhtenko in Sokolov Dossier I, dated September 8, 1918; omission in the original.
84. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 261.
85. Bulygin, Murder, 256.
86. K. Jagow in BM, No. 5 (May 1935), 932.
87. Winfried Baumgart, Deutsche Ostpolitik 1918 (Vienna-Munich, 1966), 337, note 13.
88. Jagow in BM, 393.
89. Lenin, Khronika, V, 642.
90. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 247–49.
91. Dekrety, III, 57–58.
92. V. Miliutin in Prozhektor, No. 4 (1924), 10.
93. Jagow in BM, 398.
94. Ibid., 399; Karl von Bothmer, Mit Graf Mirbach in Moskau (Tübingen, 1922), 103.
95. Jagow in BM, 400.
96. Bulygin, Murder, 244.
97. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 246, 252–53.
98. Bykov, Poslednie dni, 113.
99. Sokolov Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Box 1, No. 67, 212–13.
100. R. H. B. Lockhart, Memoirs of a British Agent (London, 1935), 304.
101. Bothmer, Mit Graf Mirbach, 98. 100.
102. Cited in Levine, Eyewitness, 137.
103. A. L. Okninskii, Dva goda sredi krest’ian (Riga, n.d.), 292–93.
104. Smirnoff, Autour, 142.
105. P. Paganutstsi, Pravda ob ubiistve tsarskoi sem’i (Jordanville, N.J., 1981), 29–30.
106. Bykov, “Poslednie dni,” 3–26.
107. Pravda, No. 212/7,537 (August 3, 1938), 5; G. Riabov in Rodina, No. 5 (1989), 2, 12.
108. Leninskaia Gvardiia Urala (Sverdlovsk, 1967), 508; Kasvinov, Dvadsat’ tri stupeni, 560, note 11.
109. Trotsky’s Diary, entry for April 9, 1935, in Trotsky Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, bMS/Russ 13, T-3731, p. III.
Chapter 18
1.
Marx-Engels Briefwechsel
, IV (1913), 329; letter dated September 4, 1870.
2.
F. Furet and D. Richet,
La Révolution Française
(Paris, 1973), 10, 203.
3.
A. Balabanoff,
My Life as a Rebel
(Bloomington, Ind., 1973), 183–84.
4.
See above, p. 349.
5.
Lenin,
PSS
, XVI, 452; emphasis supplied.
6.
Lenin,
PSS
, XXXV, 204; first published in 1929; emphasis supplied.
7.
Andrzej Kaminski,
Konzentrationslager 1896 bis heute: eine Analyse
(Stuttgart, 1982), 86.
8.
K. G. Kotelnikov, ed.,
Vtoroi Vserossiiskii S”ezd R. i S.D
. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 94.
9.
L. Trotskii,
O Lenine
(Moscow, 1924), 101.
10. Lenin, PSS, XXXVIII, 295. Emphasis supplied.
11. DN, No. 223 (December 3, 1917), 4.
12. Dekrety, I, 490–91.
13. Robert Payne, The Life and Death of Lenin (New York, 1964), 517.
14. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 13–15.
15. Lenin, PSS, XXXVII, 245.
16. “Revoliutsionnye Tribunaly,” VZh, No. 1 (1918), 81.
17. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 163.
18. Dekrety, I, 124–26.
19. Ibid. 469.
20. Ibid., IV, 101.
21. Ibid., I, 125–26.
22. SUiR, I, No. 12 (1917–18), 179–81.
23. Dekrety, II, 335–39.
24. Izvestiia, No. 128/392 (June 23, 1918), 3.
25. M. V. Kozhevnikov, Istoriia sovetskogo suda, 1917-56 gg. (Moscow, 1957), 40.
26. Ibid.
27. I. Steinberg, Als ich Volkskommissar war (Munich, 1929), 123–28.
28. S. Varshavskii in NS, No. 4 (April 17, 1918), 1.
29. SiM, No. 6 (1985), 65.
30. NS, No. 4 (April 17, 1918), 1.
31. Ia. Berman in PRiP, No. 1/11 (1919), 70.
32. Kozhevnikov, Istoriia, 83.
33. PR, No. 10/33 (1924), 5–6; PR, No. 9/56 (1926), 82–83; V. I Lenin i VChK: Sbornik Dokumentov (Moscow, 1975), 36—38.
34. Izvestiia, No. 248 (December 10/23, 1917), 3.
35. Lenin i VChK, 36–37.
36. PR, No. 10/33 (1924); 5; M. Pokrovskii in Pravda, No. 290/3,822 (December 18, 1927), 2.
37. N. V. Krylenko, Sudoproizvodstvo RFSSR (Moscow, 1924), 100, cited in G. Leggett, The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police (Oxford, 1986), 18.
38. NZh, No. 71/286 (April 19, 1918), 3.
39. P. G. Sofinov, Ocherki istorii Vserossiiskoi Chrezvychainoi Komissii (1917-22 gg.) (Moscow, 1960), 21. The higher figure is from Leggett, Cheka, 34.
40. la. Kh. Peters in PR, No. 10/33 (1924), 10–11.
41. I. Steinberg, In the Workshop of the Revolution (London, 1955), 145.
42. R. H. B. Lockhart, Memoirs of a British Agent (London, 1935), 333.
43. NZh, No. 112/327 (June 9, 1918), 4.
44. L. Gerson, The Secret Police in Lenin’s Russia (Philadelphia, 1976), 27; Leggett, Cheka, 47–48.
45. LS, XXI, 111–12.
46. Ibid., 112–13.
47. Ibid., 113–14.
48. Gerson, Secret Police, 30.
49. Sofinov, Ocherki, 23.
50. D. L. Golinkov, Krushenie antisovetskogo podpol’ia v SSSR, I (Moscow, 1980), 62.
51. Dekrety, I, 490–91.
52. Izvestiia, No. 32/296 (February 10/23, 1918), 1.
53. Iz istorii Vserossiiskoi Chrezvychainoi Komissii, 1917–1921 gg. (Moscow, 1958), 96–98.
54. Leggett, Cheka, 58; details in IR, No. 7/300 (February 7, 1931), 6–9.
55. Sofinov, Ocherki, 39.
56. Iz istorii VChK, 138. Other important resolutions in Leggett, Cheka, 38–39.
57. Lockhart, Memoirs, 320.
58. G. Semenov [Vasilev], Voennaia i boevaia rabota Partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov za 1917–18 gg. (Berlin, 1922).
59. Balabanoff, Life as a Rebel, 187–88.
60. V. Bonch-Bruevich, Tri pokusheniia na V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1930), 98.
&nbs
p; 61. N. N. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii, III (Berlin-Petersburg-Moscow, 1922), 23, 26.
62. LN, LXXX (1971), 52.
63. Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (New York, 1974), 309; Iz istorii VChK, 263–64.
64. Liberman, Building, 9.
65. J. Monnerot, Sociology and Psychology of Communism (Boston, 1953), 223.
66. See L. V. Bulgakova, Materialy dlia bibliografii Lenina, 1917–23 (Leningrad, 1924).
67. Cf. Izvestiia, No. 190/454 (September 4, 1918), 6–7.
68. V. Bonch-Bruevich, Tri pokusheniia na V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1930), 103.
69. G. Zinoviev cited in Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), 82; L. Cerfaux and J. Tondriau, Le Culte des Souverains dans la Civilisation Gréco-Romaine (Tournai, 1957), 291.
70. For examples, see Tumarkin, Lenin, 83–86.
71. Cerfaux and Tondriau, Le Culte, 427.
72. W. S. Ferguson in The Cambridge Ancient History, VII (Cambridge, 1928), 21.
73. Melgunov Archive, Hoover Institution, Box 4, Folder 26.
74. Ibid.
75. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 196.
76. Ibid., L, 106.
77. Ibid., 142.
78. Izvestiia, No. 134/398 (June 30, 1918), 3.
79. Ibid., No. 181/445 (August 23, 1918), 2.
80. Ibid., No. 190/454 (September 4, 1918), 5.
81. Dekrety, III, 291–92.
82. See, for instance, Chap. 16 above.
83. SUiR, I (1917–18), 777.
84. Izvestiia, No. 189/453 (September 3, 1918), 4.
85. Ibid.
86. Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 2 (September 29, 1918), 11.
87. Severnaia kommuna, No. 109 (September 19, 1918), 2, cited in Leggett, Cheka, 114.
88. Krasnaia gazeta, September 1, 1918, cited in Leggett, Cheka, 108.
89. Karl Radek in Izvestiia, No. 192/456 (September 6, 1918), 1.
90. Grigorii Aronson, Na zare krasnogo terrora (Berlin, 1929), 56.
91. Cheka i materialy po deiatel’nosti Chrezvychainykh Komissii (Berlin, 1922), 80.
92. Steinberg, In the Workshop, 163; Aronson, Na zare, 27. 71.
93. See above, Chap. 12.
94. Steinberg, In the Workshop, 227.
95. IR, No. 9/302 (February 21, 1931), 8–9.
96. Melgunov Archive, Hoover Institution, Box 4, Folder 26, pp. 9–10.
97. NChS (Berlin-Prague), No. 9 (1925), 111–41.
98. D. Venner, Histoire de l’Armée Rouge (Paris, 1981), 141.
99. Zinoviev in Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 6 (October 27,1918), 21; K. Alinin in Cheka (Odessa, 1919), 3. Further on fears of the Cheka in Bolshevik ranks: Alfons Paquet, Im kommunistischen Russland (Jena, 1919), 124–25.
100. Pravda, No. 216 (October 8, 1918), 1.
101. Petrogradskaia Pravda, No. 237/463 (October 29, 1918), 1.
102. Golinkov, Krushenie, I, 232.
103. Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 3 (October 6, 1918), 7–8.
104. Vechernye Izvestiia, No. 161 (February 3, 1919).
105. N. Moskovskii in Petrogradskaia Pravda, No. 237/463 (October 29, 1918), 1.
106. N. Zubov, F. E. Dzerzhinskii: Biografiia, 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1971), 80–81.
107. Cited by Krylenko in Izvestiia, No. 25/577 (February 4, 1919), 1.
108. E.g., G. Moroz in VS, No. 11 (1919), 4–6, and Zinoviev in Ezhenedel’nik VChK, No. 6 (October 27, 1918), 10.
109. Leggett, Cheka, 69.
110. Kievskie Izvestiia, No. 44 (May 17, 1919).
111. Dekrety, III, 458–59.
112. Golinkov, Krushenie, I, 232.
113. Izvestiia, No. 17/569 (January 25, 1919), 3.
114. Vechernye Izvestiia, No. 159 (January 31,1919); cf. Krylenko in Izvestiia, No. 25/577 (February 4, 1919), 1.
115. Lenin i VChK, 144–45.
116. E.g., N. Norov in Vechernye Izvestiia, No. 172 (February 15, 1919).
117. N. V. Krylenko, Sud i pravo v SSSR, cited in Melgunov Archive, Hoover Institution, Box 4, Folder 25.
118. Leggett, Cheka, 216.
119. IA, No. 1 (1958), 8–9.
120. I. Polikarenko, ed., Osoboe zadanie (Moscow, 1977), illustration between pp. 296 and 297.
121. Leggett, Cheka, 208–9, 238.
122. Liberman, Building, 14–15.
123. Leggett, Cheka, 93.
124. Ibid., 210.
125. Ibid., 212–13.
126. L. Trotskii in Izvestiia, No. 171 (August 11, 1918), 1.
127. IA, No. 1 (1958), 10.
128. Dekrety, IV, 400–2.
129. Ibid. V, 69–70.
130. Ibid., 174–81.
131. D. J. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn., 1947), 299.
132. Dekrety, V, 511–12.
133. Kaminski, Konzentrationslager, 87.
134. A. Solzhenitsyn cited in Kaminski, Konzentrationslager, 87. See further James Bunyan, The Origin of Forced Labor in the Soviet State: 1917–1921 (Baltimore, 1967).
135. Cheka i materialy, 242–47.
136. Kaminski, Konzentrationslager, 82–83.
137. Boris Nikolaevskii in SV, No. 8–9/732–733 (1959), 167–72; G. H. Leggett in Survey, No. 2/107 (1979), 193–99.
138. Leggett, Cheka, 464; M. la. Latsis, Dva goda bor’by na vnutrennem fronte (Moscow, 1920), 75.
139. Otchët Tsentral’nogo Upravleniia Chrezvychainykh Komissii pri Sovnarkome Ukrainy za 1929 138. god (Kharkov, 1921), in W. H. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, 1917–21, II (New York, 1935), 75.
140. Lower figure in K. Alinin, Tche-Ka (London, n.d.), 65, higher in Leggett, Cheka, 464.
141. Chamberlin, Revolution, II, 75; Leggett, Cheka, 359.
142. I. Steinberg, Gewalt und Terror in der Revolution (Berlin, 1974), 16.
143. Ibid., 138–39.
144. The Bullitt Mission to Russia (New York, 1919), 115.
145. Pierre Pascal, En Russie Rouge (Petrograd, 1920), 6.
146. International Committee for Political Prisoners, Letters from Russian Prisons (New York, 1925), 2, 15, 13.
Afterword
1.
A. Ksiunin in
VO
, No. 55 (June 22, 1918), 1.
ONE HUNDRED WORKS ON THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The following selection of literature on the Russian Revolution is admittedly subjective: I have chosen books from which I have learned the most. Unfortunately, although the serious literature in Western languages increases each year, the bulk of the material is still in Russian. Additional references will be found in the footnotes and endnotes.
Part I
The best general surveys of the final years of the monarchy are by Bernard Pares, who was both an eyewitness and a historian: Russia and Reform (London, 1907) and The Fall of the Russian Monarchy (London, 1929). There exists a sympathetic history of Nicholas II by S. S. Oldenburg, Tsarstvovanie Imperatora Nikolaia II [The Reign of Emperor Nicholas II], 2 vols. (Belgrade-Munich, 1939–49). It has been translated as Last Tsar: Nicholas II, His Reign and His Russia, 4 vols. (Gulf Breeze, Fla., 1975–78). Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu’s three-volume The Empire of the Tsars and the Russians (New York-London, 1898) is a comprehensive survey of Imperial Russia in the 1880s. The reader may also wish to consult my Russia under the Old Regime (London-New York, 1974), which interprets the course of Russia’s political and social history.
There exists a unique source of testimonies by high officials on the last years of the old regime taken by a commission of the Provisional Government and published under the editorship of P. E. Shcheglovitov: Padenie tsarskogo rezhima [The Fall of the Tsarist Regime], 7 vols. (Leningrad, 1924–27). Selections from it have been published in French: La Chute du Régime Tsariste: Interrogatoires (Paris, 1927). A six-volume “chronicle” of the year 1917 edited by N. Avdeev et al., Revoliutsiia 1917: khronika sobytii [The Revolution of 1917: A Chronicle of Events] (Moscow, 1923–30), delivers much more than its title promises, for it contains a wealth of information from rare
and unpublished contemporary sources.
Of the memoir literature on late Imperial Russia, the most outstanding are the recollections of Sergei Witte, Vospominaniia [Memoirs], 3 vols. (Moscow, 1960). The one-volume English condensation by Abraham Yarmolinsky, Memoirs of Count Witte (London-Garden City, N.Y., 1921), is a pale shadow of the original. Very informative on the mentality of the high Imperial bureaucracy are the recollections of State Secretary S. E. Kryzhanovskii, Vospominaniia [Memoirs] (Berlin, [1938]). The recollections of the liberal leader Paul Miliukov appeared posthumously: Vospominaniia [Memoirs] (New York, 1955) (in English: Political Memoirs, 1905–1917, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1967). Dmitrii Shipov, a leading liberal-conservative, wrote Vospominaniia i dumy o perezhitom [Recollections and Reflections on the Past] (Moscow, 1918).
The best study of the late Imperial bureaucracy unfortunately remains unpublished: Theodore Taranovsky, The Politics of Counter-Reform: Autocracy and Bureaucracy in the Reign of Alexander III 1881–1894, Ph.D. Dissertation, 1976, Harvard University.
On the peasants, outstanding are the personal observations of A. N. Engelgardt, Iz derevni [From the Village] (Moscow, 1987), and Stepniak [S. M. Kravchinskii], The Russian Peasantry (New York, 1888). Theodore Shanin’s The Awkward Class (Oxford, 1972) is a study of Russian peasants under tsarist and Communist rule.
On the phenomenon of the intelligentsia, there is an informative collection of essays edited by George B. de Huszar, The Intellectuals (London and Glencoe, Ill., 1960). There exists no satisfactory history of the Russian intelligentsia in the twentieth century. On the Socialists-Revolutionaries, there is Manfred Hildermeier’s Die Sozialrevolutionäre Partei Russlands [The Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party] (Köln-Vienna, 1978). On the Social-Democrats, the reader may consult Leonard Schapiro’s The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York, 1960) and John L. H. Keep’s The Rise of Social Democracy in Russia (Oxford, 1963). On the early liberals, Shmuel Galai has written The Liberation Movement in Russia, 1900–1905 (Cambridge, 1973). The four-volume Obshchestvennoe dvizhenie v Rossii v nachale XX-go veka [Public Currents in Russia at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century] (St. Petersburg, 1910–14), edited by Martov and other Mensheviks, provides an intelligent if partisan survey. Revolutionary terrorism is recounted in A. Spiridovich’s Histoire du Terrorisme Russe, 1886–1917 (Paris, 1930). My two-volume biography, Struve: Liberal on the Left (1870–1905) (Cambridge, Mass., 1970) and Struve: Liberal on the Right (1905–1944) (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), deals with an outstanding Russian intellectual of the age who evolved from Marxism to liberalism and ended up as a monarchist.