The China Mission
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anti-Americanism, 232, 242, 316–17, 323–24
Art of War, The (Sun Tzu), 93
atomic weapons, 30, 113, 254, 348
Atom Strikes, The (film), 102
Auden, W. H., 178
Avenge the Shame Society, 133
barbarian-to-check-barbarian approach, 90, 115
Barrett, David, 381n
Baruch, Bernard, 254
Beal, John, 155, 191, 199
on Alfred Kohlberg, 285
on blame game, 277
“lesser of two evils” argument, 297–98
on Marshall’s tenacity, 265
Beijing:
consolidation of Marines around, 294
declaration of People’s Republic of China in, 342
Executive Headquarters, 100, 127, 166, 253, 279
meaning of name, 127n
rape of Shen Chung, 316
request for military surveillance of, 104
See also Communists
Big Four powers, 3, 25
Birch, John, 42, 139, 356
blame game, 173, 267, 276–78, 313–14, 347
Boxer Indemnity, 23
Buck, Pearl, 23, 234
Bullitt, William, 252, 344
Butterworth, Walton, 255, 329
Byrnes, James, 13, 36, 38
developing strategy for China, 42–43
report of Soviet intent in China, 72
response to Marshall’s admission of futility, 325
summit meeting in Moscow, 45–46
Truman’s desire to replace as secretary of state, 162, 186, 325
U.S.-Soviet relations over Manchuria, 141
Byroade, Henry, 51, 99–100, 127–29, 131, 177
C-54 Skymaster aircraft:
accident, 273
Chiang’s use of, 194, 201
luxury of, 51
as symbol of American might, 2
Zhou’s use of, 206, 212
Capra, Frank, 150
Caughey, John Hart, 73–76, 92, 172, 278, 322
arrival of Averell Harriman in Chongqing, 112
on breakdown of peace negotiations, 260–61
concerns about future war, 213
departure with Marshall, 333
eliciting cooperation from Zhou on truce teams in Manchuria, 153
on failure of Manchurian cease-fire, 223
on importance of Marshall to peace process, 151
on Katherine Marshall, 183
on Marshall’s diplomacy skills, 95–96
on Marshall’s return to peace talks, 166
on Marshall’s tenacity, 265–66
on visiting politicians, 229
on Shanghai, 112
CC Clique faction, 107, 118, 191, 316
CCP. See Communists
cease-fire agreements, 286
announcement of, 205–6
cease-fire talks after takeover of Changchun, 202–4
as Chiang’s trump card, 260
Communists’ reaction to, 206–8
complaints of violations, 100
drafting order for, 203–4
failure of, 219–23
after initial negotiations of Committee of Three, 99
Marshall’s handling of, 208–18
Marshall’s proffered formulas for, 180
Nationalists’ reaction to, 212–14
seizure of Changchun and, 168, 174, 182
Central Executive Committee (Nationalists), 143
Central Intelligence Agency. See CIA
Century of Humiliation, 24, 178–79
Chahar province, 96–97, 101, 128
Chang, Carsun, 149–50, 258
Chang Chi-chung, 121–26, 343
on Marshall’s return to peace talks, 166
trip promoting Committee of Three agreement, 127–45
Chang Chun, 76–77, 93–98, 101
Changchun, 166–67, 199–201, 203
Chen, Kuo-fu, 107
Chen Li-fu, 60, 107, 199, 322, 346
assassination of political activists and, 236
confidence of victory over Communists, 219
Marshall’s opinion of, 209, 240
reaction to Marshall’s final statement, 331
social life in Nanjing, 185
Chennault, Claire, 26, 90, 299
Chiang, Madame (Soong Mei-ling), 52, 58, 61
background of, 68–70
banter with Marshall, 145
celebration for husband’s birthday, 281
condolence note to Katherine Marshall, 357
efforts to explain democracy to husband, 306
friendship with Katherine Marshall, 194, 225, 239
gifts to departing Americans, 330
hosting Marshall, 103
letter to Marshall, 161
rumored relationship with Wendell Wilkie, 380–81n
visit to Marshalls in Leesburg, 347
Chiang Kai-shek, 4
acknowledgement of errors, 347
agreement to extend cease-fire, 215
agreement to peace talks, 87–88
alliance with U.S., 11
American estimate of number of troops, 122
announcement of cease-fire, 99, 205
appropriation of land and property, 189–90
background of, 56
barbarian-to-check-barbarian approach, 115
blame game, 173, 347
conflict with General Stilwell, 26–27
conversion to Methodism, 58
cooperation with allies during WWII, 24–25
desire for Marshall’s departure, 300
destruction of Yellow River dikes, 59
efforts to wipe out Communists in Manchuria, 274
encirclement campaigns, 197
enjoyment of Chinese checkers, 239
exclusion from high councils of strategy during WWII, 28
final meal with Marshall, 329–30
follower of Sun Yat-Sen, 56–57
importance of military to power, 121
interest in U.S. politics, 284
invitation to Marshall to serve as personal advisor, 305
leveraging American presence in Manchuria, 140–41
maneuvering Communists into bearing blame for failure of negotiations, 267
marriage to Soong Mei-ling, 58
Marshall’s first meeting with, 52–53
Marshall’s shuttle diplomacy efforts with, 219–21
Marshall’s treatment of, 70–71
meeting with Averell Harriman, 113
message to Truman about Marshall, 115–16
National Assembly, 287
negotiations following Nationalists’ takeover of Changchun, 199–204
optimism regarding acceptance of PCC proposals, 117–18
overconfidence of, 241
pessimism regarding peace agreement, 212–13
preparing final offensive, 317–18
purge of Communist allies, 57–58
reactions and responses
to anti-American protests, 323
to establishment of Philippine republic, 225
to joint public statement issued by Marshall and Stuart, 249
to Marshall Plan, 340–41
to Marshall’s appointment as envoy to China, 31
to Marshall’s death, 357
to Marshall’s draft of bill of rights, 110–11
to Marshall’s final statement, 331
to Marshall’s final warning, 304–7
to Marshall’s recall request to Truman, 270
to threats to withhold financial aid, 259
to Truman’s victory over Dewey, 345
to Truman’s warning letter, 249–50
to Yalta Agreement, 32, 49, 120, 195, 237
recognition of need for U.S. aid, 111
reflecting on Marshall’s mission, 333
Rehe and Chahar provinces, 97–98
resistance to truce teams, 142–43
retreat to Kuling, 234–35
self-defeatin
g practices, 340
sense of personal destiny, 55–56
single-mindedness of, 275–76
60th birthday, 280
toleration of corruption, 108
understanding of level of support offered from Roosevelt, 391n
use of financial aid to elicit cooperation from, 256
visit of Henry Luce, 280–81
visit to Moscow, 57
war with Japan, 59
weakening of U.S. support for, 240
China Aid bill, 342
Chinese checkers, 239
Chongqing, 53
compared to Shanghai, 112
effect of war on, 60–61
“gestapo atmosphere” of, 63
intrigue/espionage in, 104
Katherine Marshall’s arrival in, 166
location of, 50
Marshall’s mission headquarters, 62
Marshalls’ move to Nanjing from, 183–85
Nationalists’ abandonment of, 174–75
See also Nationalists
Churchill, Winston, 138
Iron Curtain speech, 4, 157
recognition of Marshall’s organizational skills, 18
on relinquishing Hong Kong, 24
request for Marshall’s picture, 63
role in deciding China’s future, 28
underestimation of Marshall, 18
view of U.S. efforts to include China as part of Big Four, 25
Yalta Agreement, 32, 49, 119–20, 195, 237
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency):
report on crisis in China, 346
report on Soviet support of CCP, 343
Clifford, Clark, 283–84
Cold War, 348
differing opinions of role of China mission in, 362–63
as new concept, 83–84
Comintern, 84
Committee of Three, 73–98
Chang Chun, 76–77, 93–98, 101
Communists’ goals, 88–90
dissolution of, 336
field work, 127–45
Hsu Yung-Chang, 215–16
initial negotiations, 93–98
John Hart Caughey, 73–76
John Soong, 74
making case for, 87–88
Marshall’s attempt to revive, 215
Nationalists’ goals, 88
paralysis of, 173
reconvening of, 286
recruiting team, 73–76
signing of military agreement, 126
truce teams, 127–32, 137, 141–44
Zhou Enlai, 77–80, 89
See also Marshall, George C.; Zhou Enlai
Communists (CCP):
ability to destabilize Nationalist power, 275
acceptance of PCC proposals, 116–19
agreement to peace talks, 87–89
Anping ambush, 241–42, 248–49, 257–58
battle for Siping, 185, 190–93
blame game, 276–78, 313–14
breakdown of PCC agreement, 167–82
categorization of, 82–83
change from guerrilla warfare to military campaign, 343
commercial agreement with Soviets, 297
Committee of Three goals, 88–90
defection of Nationalists’ troops to, 343
departure from Nanjing and Shanghai, 279
effect of war with Japan on, 12, 39–40
“elementary school” military training program, 124, 160, 169, 196, 337
excuses for lack of cooperation with military unification, 159–60
initial negotiations of Committee of Three, 93–98
interpretation of democratic reform, 143
interpretation of military unification, 143
military strategy, 320
post-WWII efforts to unite with Nationalists, 3
post-WWII Soviet relationship, 86–87
reactions and responses
to anti-American protests, 323–24
to cease-fire in Manchuria, 206–08
to Marshall’s final statement, 331–32
to Truman’s policy statement, 312
rhetorical offensive aimed at U.S., 226–27
social interactions with Nationalists, 103–4
Soviet support of, 197
use of propaganda, 210, 219, 232, 256–57
willingness to work with Americans during WWII, 29–30
See also Mao Zedong; Zhou Enlai; other names of specific Communists
constitution:
Marshall’s efforts to influence, 314
ratification of, 316
corruption:
effect on tax revenue, 302
Nationalists
appropriation of land and property, 189
Chiang’s toleration of, 107–8
in military, 319–20
Soong family and, 70, 107
WWII and, 59
Cravath, Paul, 107
D-Day invasion, 15
defensive annihilation, 226
demobilization of troops
American troops, 91–92
Communist armies, 121
See also military unification
Democratic League, 142, 149, 235, 258, 332
democratic reform:
American promotion of political solution, 106–9
Communists’ interpretation of, 143
efforts of Committee of Five, 254
PCC, 106, 110–11, 117
Deng Xiaoping, 362
Dewey, Thomas, 19, 345
diplomacy
Marshall’s diplomacy skills, 95
negative capability of Chinese, 361
shuttle diplomacy, 211, 219
See also cease-fire agreements; Committee of Three
Dixie Mission, 30, 64, 197
John Stewart Service, 80, 82
Marshall’s visit to, 2–3, 137
“Draft Marshall” movement, 149
Durdin, Tillman, 117, 188, 248, 324
economy:
collapse of, 307–8
effect of political instability on, 236–37
Eisenhower, Dwight:
appointment to D-Day command, 15
on death of Marshall, 357
on Marshall’s self-control, 34
praising Marshall from White House, 355
public criticism of Marshall, 354
visit to Nanjing, 186–87
“elementary school” military training program (for Communists), 124, 160, 169, 196, 337
Elsey, George, 283–84
espionage. See intrigue/espionage
Europe:
Marshall Plan, 335–38, 340, 342
post-WWII battle for, 339
U.S. prioritization of during WWII, 27
V-E Day, 186
exclusion laws, 23, 70
Executive Headquarters, 100–101, 145, 166, 198, 210–11
dissolution of, 336
failure of, 293
paralysis of, 173
retreat of truce teams to, 253
Team 25 unit, 243
truce teams, 127–32, 137, 141–44
weakening of, 160
Fairbank, John, 79, 311
field work (Committee of Three), 127–45
“fighting while talking”:
advocating peace while planning for war, 198
battle for Siping, 185, 190–93
cease-fire talks after takeover of Changchun, 202–4
Chiang’s appropriation of land and property, 189–90
discord in Nationalist army, 197–98
Eisenhower’s visit to Nanjing, 186–87
Mao’s land redistribution plan, 188–89
Nationalists’ move from Chongqing to Nanjing, 183–85
Nationalists’ takeover of Changchun, 199–201
recruiting Tillman Durdin, 188
Soviet support of Communists, 197
use of propaganda to undermine negotiations, 194–96
5 Ning Hai Road, 183–84, 253
Forrestal, James, 39,
158, 228–29, 343–44
400 Million Customers, 237
fratricidal warfare injunction, 39–41, 139
Gaddis, John Lewis, 361
Gellhorn, Martha, 68, 77
Generalissimo. See Chiang Kai-shek
Gillem, Alvan, 121–22, 130, 144, 152–53, 271
Good Earth, The (Buck), 23
Great Britain, 25, 156
Great Globe Itself, The (Bullitt), 252
Great Leap Forward, 356
Greece, 337
Green Gang, 57
Gromyko, Andrei, 283
Happiness Gardens, 62, 93
Harbin, 207
Harriman, Averell, 46, 112–16, 158, 283, 356–57
Hay, John, 22
Hellman, Lillian, 61, 333, 354
Hemingway, Ernest, 57–58, 68, 77
Henry V (film), 238
Hersey, John, 144–45, 166, 254, 308
Hiroshima, 83, 102, 144, 254
Ho Chi Minh, 57
Hoover, J. Edgar, 157
House Un-American Activities Committee, 33
Hsu Yung-Chang, 215–16
Hump of the Himalayas, 12, 24, 28–29
Hurley, Patrick, 11–14, 33, 251, 289, 336
inflation, 184, 236, 307–8
intrigue/espionage:
Marshall’s handling of, 104–5
Soviet spies in U.S. politics, 289
in Washington, 195–96
Zhou Enlai and, 104, 289
Iron Curtain speech (Churchill), 4, 157
Jacoby, Annalee, 311–12, 317, 320
Japan:
development of Manchuria, 165
effect of war with Japan on Communists, 12, 39–40
invasion of China, 59
repatriation of Japanese from China, 39, 294
Russo-Japanese War, 164
suddenness of surrender, 30–31
Three Alls policy, 59
Jenner, William, 351
Jiang Qing (Madame Mao), 134
John Birch Society, 356–57
Johnson, Lyndon, 357, 362
Judd, Walter, 195, 224, 299, 343
Kang Sheng, 134
Kennan, George, 46, 113, 158, 227–28, 284
appointment to Policy Planning Staff, 338
on death of Marshall, 357
Soviet objective in China, 171–72
speculation about relationship between Yenan and Kremlin, 297
Kennedy, John F., 282, 349
Kim Il Sung, 350
Kohlberg, Alfred, 285, 298
Korean War, 350–52, 356
Kremlin:
Kremlin-CCP collusion in Manchuria, 177
Mao’s view of, 84
See also Soviets/Russians
Kuling, 234, 239, 260–61
Kung, H. H., 70
Kunming, 235–36
Kuomintang party, 56. See also Nationalists
land redistribution plan, 188–89
Leahy, William, 35, 105
Lee, Robert E., 363
Lend-Lease program, 24, 28, 111, 218, 391n
Lin Biao, 177, 185, 190, 203, 207–8
Lindbergh, Charles, 251