The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine
Page 53
12.Merton Sandler, ‘Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in Depression: History and Mythology’, Journal of Psychopharmacology, 1990, Vol. 4, pp. 136–9. See also G. E. Crane, ‘Psychiatric Side Effects of Iproniazid’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 1956, Vol. 112, pp. 494–501; H. P. Loomer, J. C. Saunders and N. S. Klein, ‘A Clinical and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of Iproniazid as a Psychic Energiser: Psychiatric Research Report No. 8’, American Psychiatric Association, 1958, pp. 129–41.
13.C. P. J. Tyrer, ‘Benzodiazepines on Trial’, BMJ, 1984, Vol. 288, pp. 1101–2. See also F. Kraupel Taylor, ‘The Damnation of Benzodiazepines’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 1989, Vol. 154, pp. 697–704.
14.L. H. Sternbach, ‘The Benzodiazepine Story’, Progress in Drug Research, 1978, Vol. 22, pp. 229–66.
15.H. Mohler and T. Okada, ‘Benzodiazepine Receptor: Demonstration in the Central Nervous System’, Science, 1977, Vol. 198, pp. 849–51.
16.Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1997).
17.Hans J. Eysenck, The Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (Penguin, 1985). See also Richard Webster, Why Freud Was Wrong (HarperCollins, 1996).
18.Aaron T. Beck, Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorders (Penguin, 1989). See also Gavin Andrews, ‘Talk That Works: The Rise of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy’, BMJ, 1996, Vol. 313, pp. 1501–2.
INDEX
abdominal surgery 448
acetazolamide 243
actinomycetes 50
actinomycin C 166–7
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia (ALL) 157, 158, 159–60, 174
see also leukaemia
acyclovir 242
ADA deficiency 340
Adams, Henry 418
Addison’s disease 31
adrenal hormones 31, 32
affluence 355, 402–3
ageing
biomedicalisation of 440–1
cancer 383, 384, 387, 397
degenerative diseases 120, 419, 425–6, 440
population increase 6, 440
solid tumours 176
surgery 450–3
AIDS 56–7, 413
alcohol consumption 401–2
Alexander, Albert 14–15, 21
Alexander, Franz 206
Alexander, Stewart 162
allopurinol 242, 502
alternative medicine 6, 424–5
American Heart Association (AHA) 366, 369
Ames, Bruce 392–3
amino acids 315
aminopterin 166
anaesthetics 92–3
Anderson, French 341–2
Angell, Marcia 466, 471–2, 473
angina 153, 284
anti-cancer drugs 486–9
combining drugs 169, 170–1, 173–4
development 162–9
evaluation 168–9
genetic engineering 332
leukaemia 157–8, 159, 166, 169, 171, 173, 242
rheumatology 502
solid tumours 177
treatment problem 161
anti-inflammatory proteins 269
antibiotics
anti-cancer 166–7
chemistry 22
discovery 13, 21, 23, 49
nature of 264–5
penicillin 13–21
rheumatic disorders 498–9
role of 219–20
streptomycin 24, 25
and sulphonamides 242
anticoagulants 370
antidepressants 475–80, 504, 507–9
anxiety 404, 510
Appleton, William 477
arthritis 121–2, 127
see also rheumatoid arthritis
arthroplasty 121–30
artificial ventilation see ventilation
aspirin 11, 52, 380
asthma 34, 35, 220, 269, 283
autoimmunity 498
Avastin 487, 488
azathioprine 133, 144, 145, 146, 242
Bachetta, Matthew 451
bacteria
antibiotics 21–2, 24
as cause of disease 205, 407, 411
chlamydia 381
competitive inhibition 50
genes 319, 320
genetic engineering 325, 326
helicobacter 202, 210, 211, 212, 411
soil 24, 50
streptococcus 239, 240
Bailar, John, III: 384
balloon catheters 445–6
Baltimore, David 320, 321
Barnard, Christian 99–101, 119
Bavister, Barry 188
Bayer 238
Beeson, Paul 234–5
Beg, Colin 177
Bell, John 312
Bell’s palsy 412
bendrofluazide 242
benzodiazepines 504, 510–11
Bernheim, Frederick 52
beta blockers 152–3
Beyer, Karl H. 152
‘Big Idea’ (population strategy) 401, 402
Big Pharma 466, 493–4
Big Science 491, 492–3
Binns, V. C. 127
biological therapies, cancer 487–8
biology of life 462–4
biotechnology 457
see also genetic engineering
Bjork, Viking 119
Bjorneboe, Mogens 88
Black, Sir James 153, 284, 467
Blalock, Alfred 104, 230
bleomycin 167
blockbuster drugs 284–5, 467–71, 485
blood pressure 147, 150
see also hypertension
Bodley-Scott, Sir Ronald 279
bone marrow 146
Boyer, Herbert 325, 326, 327, 328, 329
Bradford Hill, Sir Austin
career 42–4, 46, 69
causation 71–3
clinical trials 53, 54, 58, 59, 70–1
cohort studies 65–6, 68–9
epidemiology 397
smoking and cancer 59, 61, 64, 65
statistics 42, 46, 61, 358, 432
breast cancer 176, 337, 487
British Medical Association 352
British Medical Journal 302–3
Brock, Sir Russell 104
Brown, Lesley 181, 199
Brown, Louise Joy 179, 181, 199
Brukhonenko, S. S. 109
Burnet, Sir MacFarlane 318
Bush, Vannevar 215, 218
Bywaters, Eric 224–5, 231
Cade, John 504–6
Calne, Roy 136, 143–4, 145
cancer
biological therapies 487–8
breast 176, 337, 487
and diet 383, 385–8, 397
genetic testing 336–7
keyhole surgery 449
lung 41, 59, 60, 71, 176
oncology 176–8
Social Theory 355, 356, 383–8
stomach 211
treatment 2, 161
see also anti-cancer drugs; leukaemia
Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Center 168–9
cardiac surgery
closed-heart surgery 97
development 96, 102–8
open-heart surgery 96–102, 108–12, 113–19, 450–1
post-operative care 94
Carrel, Alexis 138
Carson, Rachel 389–90
case-control studies 62–5
Cassidy, Sir Maurice 361–2
Castell, Donald 468
cataracts 251
catheters 229–30, 231, 445–6
causation 71–3
cells 237, 267–8, 311
see also genes
cerebral palsy 292, 294, 295
Chain, Ernst 17, 18–19, 21
Chamberlain, Austen 223
Chang, Judy 333
Chang, Min 184, 188
Charlton, Bruce 491
Charnley, John 121, 123–30
Charpentier, Paul 81
Chasis, Herbert 151
chemicals
in environment 390, 392–4
new chemical entities (NCEs) 278–9, 281
see also drugs
chemistry 237–8, 243
chemotherapy see anti-cancer drugs
childbirth see foetal monitoring
chlamydia 381
chlorambucil 164
chlorothiazide 151, 152, 155
chlorpromazine
Delay and Deniker 81, 282
discovery 507, 508
schizophrenia 76–8, 81, 282, 504, 510
workings of 74
cholera 204
cholesterol 156, 482–3
drugs 374, 376–9, 480–4
heart disease 362–4, 381, 403
cholestyramine 377
Churchill, Edward 109, 110
Churchill, Winston 241
cimetidine 208, 210, 284
cisplatin 168
Clareman, Gerald 512
Clark, David 75–6
Clark, Michael 291
Clegg, Hugh 40
Cleland, Bill 106, 277
Clinical Research Centre (CRC) 304
clinical science
decline 300–6
Holman 228
new ideology 221, 226, 230, 233
patients 232–3
clinical trials 471–3
anti-cancer drugs 169
cholesterol-lowering drugs 377, 482
heart disease 370–2, 401
principle 53–4
Randomised Controlled Trial 58, 59, 70–1
tuberculosis 53–6
Clinton, Bill 455
Clomiphene 200
closed-heart surgery 97
clots (thrombus) 361, 367–8, 370, 379–81
cognitive therapy 504, 513
Cohen, Stanley 326
cohort studies 66–9
Colebrook, Leonard 240
Collins, Francis 456, 458
Collins, Rory 482
colon 449
colonoscopes 259
Comings, David 322
competitive inhibition 50, 52, 141, 165, 241–2
connective tissue disorders 498
Connolly, Cyril 57–8
contraceptive pill 189, 190, 191
Copenhagen polio epidemic 84–90
coronary angioplasty 444–7
coronary disease see heart disease
cortisone 27–39
benefits 34
discovery 27–33, 266–7, 497
inflammation 27, 37, 39, 269–70
role of 219
side-effects 33–4
therapeutic potency 35–7
Upjohn 245, 247
see also steroids
coxsackie B 412
Crampton-Smith, A. 91
Craven, Harry 127–8
Creuzfeldt-Jakob disease 413
Crick, Francis 215, 313, 316, 455
cross circulation, open-heart surgery 115–16
crush syndrome 224–5
curare 92
Curtiss, Larry 258
Cutler, Elliott 104, 106
Cutshall, Cynthia 340, 341
cyclophosphamide 159, 164
cyclosporine 146
cystic fibrosis 316, 334, 335–6, 342, 343, 348
cystoscopes 259–60
Dack, Gail 204
Dale, Sir Henry 40
Dameshek, William 142
dapsone 243
daunomycin 167
Davidson, Stanley 499
definitive moments 2, 3, 7, 180, 216–17, 244
degenerative diseases of ageing 120, 419, 425–6, 440
Delay, Jean 81, 82, 282, 503
Deniker, Pierre 81, 82, 282, 503
Denton, Michael 267–8
deoxyribose 313
depression, classification of 476–7, 478
DeWall, Richard 116
Dexter, Michael 456
diabetes 31, 243, 325, 412
diagnosis 11, 236
diagnostic technology 2, 249, 289–91, 420
dialysis 137–8, 248
diet
and cancer 383, 385–8, 397
as disease cause 352, 355
and heart disease 364–6, 368–74, 376, 381–2
digoxin 11
diseases
disease mongering 469–71
pattern of 12
therapeutic revolution 212–13
unknown causes 203, 283, 306, 352, 407–13
see also Social Theory (of disease); specific diseases
diuretics 243
DNA 313–22, 412
anti-cancer drugs 167, 168, 174
structure of 216, 455
text-cutters 319, 326, 333
doctors
diagnosing 11
disillusioned 4–5, 417, 423
and patients 230, 233, 434
and pharmaceutical industry 433, 473–4
specialists 275–7
see also prescriptions
Doll, Sir Richard
causes of cancer 385, 386–8
food consumption review 355
smoking 61–2, 63, 64, 65, 69
Dollery, Colin 277–8
Domagk, Gerhard 238–9, 242
Dotter, Charles 445
Drinker, Philip 86
drug companies see pharmaceutical industry
drugs
accidental discovery 236–8
anaesthetics 92
anticoagulants 370
antidepressants 475–80, 504, 507–9
blockbuster 284–5, 467–71, 485
cholesterol-lowering 374, 376–9, 480–4
clots 380
contraceptive 189, 190, 191
development time 283
effectiveness 285
evaluating 471–3
fertility 189, 190, 200
genetic engineering 330–1
hypertension 148, 151–3
immunosuppressants 133, 142, 144, 145, 146
innovation 271, 282, 284, 485–6
lifestyle 286
new 278–9, 281–7
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 500–1
numbers of 221
peptic ulcers 208
prescriptions 441, 465, 474–5, 476
psychiatric illnesses 74, 80–2, 503–11
regulation 282
resistance to 56
rheumatology 498–502
sulphonamides 152, 238–44
withdrawal syndrome 479
see also anti-cancer drugs; antibiotics; clinical trials; side-effects of drugs
dying 296–8
ear 250
Edwards, Robert (Bob) 180–1, 182, 185–9, 193–200, 217
eggs see IVF
elderly see ageing
electric shock therapy (ECT) 79
electrocardiogram 227
Eli Lilly 328, 330
Elion, Gertrude 133, 141, 144, 167, 241, 284
Elkes, Joel 76–7, 82
Ellis, Laurence Brewster 106–7
embryology 221
endocrinology 221
endoscopes 249, 254–62, 448
endoscopy 291
environmental pollution 356, 389–95, 397
‘epidemic of anxiety’ 404
epidemiology 309, 397, 398–402
epilepsy 285
Epstein, Samuel 355, 389
Epstein, Stephen 381
Erlichman, James 329
erysipelas 240–1
eugenicist ideology 339
evolution 310, 358
Eysenck, Hans 503
factor VIII: 325, 334, 335
fallopian tubes 180, 183, 184, 192, 193, 198
Fallot, Etienne Louis 103
Fallot’s Tetralogy 103–5, 107, 115, 116, 117, 231
Farber, Sidney 165, 166, 171, 175
Faroe Islands 409
Farr, William 45
Feinstein, Alvin 398–9
female reproductive hormones 189–92
fertility drugs 189, 190, 200
see also IVF
fibreoptic endoscopes 257–9
finasteride
285
first order kinetics 173
Fisher, Ronald 45–6
Fleming, Alexander 15–17, 21
Fletcher, Charles 14, 21
Florey, Howard
career 17–18, 21, 216
and Chain 19, 21
Domagk’s experiment 242
penicillin manufacture 20, 25, 218
foetal monitoring 291–5
folic acid 165, 241
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 189, 190, 191
Franco, General 296–7
Frei, Emil, III: 170, 173
Freireich, Emil 170, 173
Freudian psychoanalysis see psychoanalysis
Friedmann, Theodore 341
fruit 392–3
frusemide 243
Gadsden, Henry 467
Gainsborough, Hugh 256
gall bladders 261
Gallo, Robert 413
Galton, David 158
Galton, Francis 44
Gardner, Mrs 28
gastritis 209, 210
gastroscopes 255, 256
Gee, Samuel 226
Geigy 500, 507, 508
Gell, Philip 349–50
gene therapy 324, 339–44, 345
Genentec 327, 328–9, 330
genes
breast cancer 337
complexity 347–9, 462
gene therapy 324, 339–44, 345
genome sequencing 458, 459
haemoglobin 322
Human Genome Project 455–6
insulin 321, 322, 328
proteins 332
regulatory 463
working of 313–23
see also DNA; New Genetics
genetic diseases 316, 334–5
complexity 348–9
single-gene disorders 324, 339, 457, 459
genetic engineering 324, 325–32, 345
genetic screening 333–6, 345
genetic testing 336–8
genetics see New Genetics
genome sequencing 458, 459
Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) 460
George V: 223
Gibbon, John 98, 108–14
gifts from nature 264, 266
Gilbert, Walter 322
Gillick, Muriel 297
Gillies, Sir Harold 252, 253
Gilman, Alfred 162–3, 217
Girolami, Paul 467–8, 469
GlaxoSmithKline 479
gold 499
Goldberg, Elsa 207
Golden Ages, knowledge 418
Goldstein, David 462
Goodman, Louis 162, 217
gout 502
Gow, Jim 259–60
Gray, T. Cecil 92–3
Greenwood, Major 42, 43, 44, 46
Greuntzig, Andreas 445–6
Griffin, John 286
Griffith, Howard 92
Guillan-Barré syndrome 91
Guthrie, Woody 334
gynaecology 192, 261, 448
haemoglobin 322, 333
haemophilia 325, 334–5
Hamburger, Jean 145
Hare, Ronald 16, 17
Harken, Dwight 106–7, 218
Harvey, William 454
health care, costs of 6–7, 425–6, 439
Healthism 5–6
heart 96
blood loss 225–6
catheters 229–30, 231
Fallot’s Tetralogy 103–5, 107, 115, 116, 117, 231