Rabbi Joseph Telushkin

by When? Hillel: If Not Now

  On the other hand, as is clear from the Talmudic passages cited earlier in this book, the other two figures credited with saving and restoring Jewish life in Israel were highly receptive to converts. Hillel converted three non-Jewish men who came to him with highly unusual conditions for becoming Jews, and Rabbi Chiyya converted a woman who had fallen in love with one of his students, and in love with Judaism as well.

  A Final, Brief Teaching: Hillel, the Man of God

  The Talmud reports that the rabbis were gathered in the house of Gurya in Jericho when a heavenly voice declared, “ ‘There is one among you who is worthy that the Divine Presence rest upon him, but his generation is not worthy.’ They all looked upon Hillel. And when he died, they lamented him as a hasid [a pious person, a saint], and as an anav [a man of great humility]” (Sotah 48b).

  Did this story happen exactly as this passage describes? Were the rabbis seated together, engaged in discussion when an unrecognized voice, whose source was divine, made this dramatic pronouncement? I don’t know, but what I am sure of is that what the lawyer said to the judge about the Chafetz Chayyim—the story with which this book began—applies to Hillel as well. “They don’t tell stories like that about you and me.”

  * One explicit mention of survival following death is in a later biblical book, 1 Samuel, chapter 28, in which the dead prophet Samuel appears in an angry vision—and one in which he speaks—to King Saul. But I have found that relatively little attention is paid to this episode in discussions of Jewish attitudes on the afterlife.

  * The Jewish historian Professor Shaye Cohen argues that there was no conversion process at the time. See his book The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties.

  APPENDIX 2

  Hillel’s Seven Middot of Torah Interpretation

  There are seven principles (middot) of interpretation by which Hillel explained and understood biblical law (the passage enumerating the seven principles is found in The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan, 37:10).1 Although these middot were not Hillel’s innovations, he does seem to have been the first to crystallize and expound upon them. Later, Rabbi Yishmael (first–second century C.E.) enumerated thirteen rules by which the Torah is understood (which include all of Hillel’s rules except for the sixth); his listing is recited daily in the Shacharit (morning) prayer service.

  1. Kal va-chomer: a conclusion drawn from a lenient law that is then applied to a stricter one. The term may be translated, although not literally, as “how much more so.” For example, if we know that a certain country mandates capital punishment for the crime of stealing, how much more so can we be sure that it mandates capital punishment for murder. To cite an example from Jewish ritual law: the laws of the Sabbath are stricter than the laws of the biblical festivals (holidays such as Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot). For example, it is forbidden to cook food on the Sabbath, but it is permitted to cook food on the festivals. We can therefore reason that if it is forbidden to pluck fruit from a tree on the festivals (a day when food may be cooked), how much more so can we be sure that it is forbidden to pluck fruit on the Sabbath.

  2. Gezerah shavah: comparing similar words or expressions in different biblical verses, and understanding how they clarify one another. For example, Numbers 28:2 cites God’s statement to Moses, “Command the Israelite people and say to them: ‘Be punctilious in presenting to Me at its proper time (be-mo’ado) the offerings of food due Me.’ ” Jewish law understands the word be-mo’ado as meaning that the daily sacrifice must be brought even on the Sabbath (normally, the work involved in preparing and sacrificing an animal would be forbidden on the Sabbath). Since the same word, be-mo’ado is used in stating the law of the Passover sacrifice, “Let the Israelite people offer the Passover sacrifice be-mo’ado” (Num. 9:2), Jewish law understands this verse as meaning that the Passover sacrifice is offered even if its appointed day, the first night of Passover, falls on the Sabbath (see Pesachim 66a; the ruling that the Passover sacrifice must be brought on the Sabbath is the ruling that led to Hillel’s appointment as nasi, or leader; see this page).

  3. Binyan av: a general principle (a sort of archetype) contained in one or two Torah laws that is applicable to all related laws. Deuteronomy 24:6 states that when a lender makes a loan he cannot take as collateral “a handmill or an upper millstone,” which are used to prepare flour for bread. Depriving the borrower of such utensils is forbidden “for that would be taking someone’s life in collateral.” Based on this, the rabbis conclude that “everything that is used for preparing food is forbidden to be taken as collateral, for that would be taking someone’s life in collateral” (Mishnah Bava Metzia 9:13). A second example: in a society that permitted slavery, biblical law ruled that if a master “strikes the eye of his slave, male or female, and destroys it, he shall let him go free on account of his eye. If he knocks out the tooth of his slave, male or female, he shall let him go free on account of his tooth” (Exod. 21:26–27). From these two instances, the Talmud deduces that when any part of the slave’s body that will not regenerate (for example, the tip of a finger) is mutilated, the slave must be set free (see Kiddushin 24a).

  4. Klal u-perat: when a general biblical law is followed by specifications, only the specified laws apply. Thus, Leviticus 18:6 prohibits sexual intimacy with anyone to whom one is related. But this verse is followed by example after example of those with whom one is forbidden to be intimate. So, this biblical prohibition is understood as forbidding only those relationships that are specified. Relations that are not specified, such as marriage between first cousins, are therefore permitted and were in fact long common in Jewish life.

  5. Perat u-klal: This is the opposite of the preceding principle. When a specific statement in the Bible is followed by a general statement, all that is implied in the generalization also applies to the specific statement. Deuteronomy 22:3 states that one who finds a missing donkey or a missing garment must return it to its owner. It then concludes with “so too shall you do with anything that your fellow man loses and you find.” Although the first part of the verse specifies the return only of a lost donkey or garment, the verse’s concluding words make it clear that a donkey and garment are cited only as examples, and that in actuality you are required to return any lost item that you find.

  6. Ka-yotzei bo mi-makom acher: an inference drawn from [an analogous case] elsewhere.

  7. Davar ha-lomed mei-inyano: the interpretation of a word or passage based on its context. While there are laws in the Torah prohibiting stealing (see, for example, Lev. 19:11, 13), the rabbis understand the prohibition “You shall not steal” in the Ten Commandments as referring specifically to kidnapping (the stealing of a human being) with the intention of selling the person into slavery. How did the rabbis derive this seemingly idiosyncratic understanding of the eighth commandment? The two prohibitions preceding “You shall not steal” are the sixth commandment, “You shall not murder,” and the seventh, “You shall not commit adultery.” Because both murder and adultery are capital offenses, the rabbis deduced that the prohibition here against stealing must also involve a capital offense. The only act of stealing that is punished with death is kidnapping, specifically when done with the intention of selling the victim into slavery: “He who kidnaps a person, whether he has sold him or is still holding him, shall be put to death” (Exod. 21:16; see both Sanhedrin 86a and Rashi’s commentary on Exod. 20:13).

  APPENDIX 3

  Hillel’s Teachings in Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers)

  Of the sixty-three short books, or tractates, that make up the Mishnah, sixty-two are legal texts. For example, Berakhot, the Mishnah’s first tractate, delineates the laws concerning appropriate blessings for various occasions. As one would expect, Shabbat specifies the Sabbath laws, and Sanhedrin, the laws of the Jewish High Court. Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers) is the only one of the sixty-three tractates that does not deal with laws. Rather, it transmits the favorite moral advice, insights, and maxims of the leading rabbi
nic scholars of different generations (all of whom lived no later than 200 C.E., when the Mishnah was compiled).

  Of the seventy-two scholars quoted in Ethics of the Fathers, Hillel is by far the most widely cited. His teachings appear in seven mishnayot (seven paragraphs of the Mishnah), while Rabbi Akiva, the second most frequently cited sage, appears in four. These favorite maxims of Hillel are—along with the story of the would-be convert who inquired about Judaism’s essence—the teachings for which he remains most widely known.

  1:12. Hillel and Shammai received [the tradition] from them [Shmaya and Avtalion]. Hillel says: “Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace, loving people and drawing them near to Torah.”

  1:13. He used to say: “A name made great is a name destroyed. He who does not increase will decrease. He who does not learn is deserving of death. He who uses the crown [of Torah for personal gain] shall soon be gone.”

  1:14. He used to say: “If I am not for myself, who will be for me? And if I am [only] for myself, what am I? And if not now, when?”

  2: 4. Hillel says: “Do not separate yourself from the community. Do not be too sure of yourself until the day of your death. Do not judge your fellow until you are in his place. Say nothing that cannot be understood, because in the end it will be understood. And do not say, ‘When I have [free] time, I will study,’ lest you never have [free] time.”

  2: 5. He used to say: “A boor does not fear sin; an ignorant person cannot be a saint; one who is bashful will never learn; the highly impatient person cannot teach; not all who steep themselves in business grow wise; and in a place where there are no men [willing to take action], try to be a man.”

  2:7. He used to say: “The more flesh [one acquires], the more worms [in the grave]. The more possessions, the more worries. The more wives, the more witchcraft.* The more servant girls, the more promiscuity. The more man-servants, the more theft. The more Torah, the more life. The more contemplation [alternatively, ‘schooling’], the more wisdom. The more counsel, the more understanding. The more charity, the more peace. He who has acquired a good name, has acquired it for himself. He who has acquired for himself a knowledge of Torah, has acquired for himself life in the world to come.”

  4:7. Rabbi Tzadok said: “ … Do not use [the Torah] as a crown for self-glorification, or as a spade with which to dig.” Likewise Hillel used to say: “One who makes worldly use of the crown [of the Torah] shall fade away.” From this you learn that one who seeks personal benefit from the words of the Torah risks destroying his life.

  * It was assumed that the different wives would use witchcraft to try to secure for themselves a greater measure of their husband’s love.

  GLOSSARY

  Antiochus Epiphanes: The villain of the Hanukkah story, Antiochus Epiphanes was part of the Seleucid dynasty, an empire based in Syria that ruled for 250 years. Antiochus Epiphanes ruled from 175 to 164 B.C.E. In 168 B.C.E., fearing that the Jews were rebelling against him while he was busy with a campaign in Egypt, he established harsh laws forbidding the practice of Judaism and forcing Hellenization and Greek religion on the Jewish population. These laws led to the successful Jewish revolt in 167 B.C.E., under the leadership of the Hasmonean priestly family.

  Aramaic: A Semitic language, related to Hebrew and Arabic, that flourished in the Mesopotamian world in different forms from approximately 700 B.C.E. to the middle of the first millennium C.E. It is still spoken by small groups in Lebanon, Turkey, and Kurdistan. The language of the Talmud and of other important Jewish texts, Aramaic was the lingua franca of Jews in Greek and Roman times, and was used for rabbinic writings for many hundreds of years. The kaddish prayer is in Aramaic.

  Ashkenazi: Originally referred to Jews from Germany; eventually generalized to all Jews from western, central, and eastern Europe.

  Beit Hillel/Beit Shammai: Literally, “The House of Hillel” and “The House of Shammai.” These names refer to the students and followers of Hillel and Shammai—those who studied with them directly and those who studied with succeeding generations of their students.

  Bible: Judaism’s Bible consists of the Torah, also known as the Five Books of Moses, or Pentateuch; the Nevi’im, or Prophets, which includes books of early Israelite history as well as the literature of the prophets; and the Ketuvim, or Writings, which includes later Israelite historical narratives as well as the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and the five megillot (The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther). In Hebrew the Bible is known as the TaNaKh, an acronym formed from the names of its three parts.

  Chafetz Chayyim: The popularly used name for Rabbi Israel Meir Kagan (1838–1933), the founder and head of a famous yeshiva in Radin, Belarus, and the author of several very important works of Jewish law. His first book, Chafetz Chayyim, published in 1873, is a study of the laws regarding gossip, slander, and tale bearing. He is also the author of the Mishnah Berurah, a commentary on the first volume of the Shulchan Arukh, the Orakh Chayyim.

  David: The second king of ancient Israel, and son-in-law and rival of King Saul. Chosen by the prophet Samuel to succeed Saul, David successfully ruled a united Israel and was a heroic warrior, a musician, and a poet traditionally credited with the authorship of the book of Psalms. A towering biblical figure of tremendous charm as well as some personal failings, he ruled ca. 1000 B.C.E. to 960 B.C.E.

  Diaspora: The Jewish communities outside the Land of Israel.

  Edom: A Gentile nation in the biblical era, said to be descendants of Esau (who was also called Edom, or Red). In rabbinic lore, Edom is the eternal antagonist of the Jews, associated with Rome and later, during periods of oppression, with Christianity.

  The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan: This rabbinic text is an elaboration of and commentary on the Mishnah tractate Pirkei Avot (Ethics of the Fathers). The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan is probably a post-Talmudic text, from between the fifth and eighth centuries. It follows the structure of Ethics of the Fathers and includes similar material.

  First Book of Maccabees: An account of the rise of Antiochus Epiphanes, the successful Hasmonean revolt against him that took place in the mid-second century B.C.E., and the first generations of Hasmonean rule. It survives in Greek translation, but scholars agree that it was written in Hebrew. It was not included in the TaNaKh, but is included in Christian bibles as part of the Apocrypha, along with several other volumes that also cover this period.

  Hellenism: The creative fusion of local and Greek culture (art, philosophy, literature, religion, etc.) that emerged in the territories first conquered by Alexander the Great in the late fourth century B.C.E. As Greek language and ideas spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia, no people, including the Jews, was immune to its influence, though many resisted certain aspects of it, as the Jews, for example, resisted polytheism.

  Herod: A wily and vicious Jewish leader of Idumean (Edomite) descent who took control of the kingdom of Judea in 37 B.C.E. with the help of the Roman army. Bloodthirsty but also highly effective, he employed terrible violence against rivals and imagined rivals, massacring even his own family members when he suspected them of disloyalty. He built a massive and beautiful expansion of the Temple in Jerusalem in an attempt to win Jewish support. He ruled until 4 B.C.E.

  High Priest: In any given generation, the leader of the priests charged with the sacred duty of offering sacrifices to God. Aaron, Moses’s brother, was the first High Priest; his descendants became the priestly caste. In the period when Jewish worship centered on the Temple in Jerusalem, the High Priest was a figure of great religious and political importance. Over time the position became politicized and debased, and various political rulers of Judea attempted to consolidate their rule by placing allies in this sacred role.

  Holy of Holies: This originally referred to the central chamber in the portable Tabernacle used by the Children of Israel during the forty years they spent in the desert. It was the most sacred room in the Tabernacle and later in the Temple in J
erusalem. Only the High Priest was permitted to enter the Holy of Holies, and only on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement.

  John Hyrcanus: Hasmonean ruler of Judea from 135 to 104 B.C.E. who forcibly converted the Idumeans to Judaism.

  Karet: A Hebrew word meaning “to cut off” or “to be destroyed.” A severe punishment that is biblically ordained for thirty-six specific transgressions, it is manifested as premature death and can be carried out only by God.

  Maccabees: The Maccabees (also known as the Hasmoneans), were a priestly family who led the Judean revolt against Antiochus Epiphanes starting in 167 B.C.E. After the patriarch Mattathias’s death at the start of the revolt, his son Judah assumed leadership. In 164 B.C.E Judah successfully wrested Jerusalem from the Seleucids and rededicated the Temple. Family members continued to rule Judea, eventually assuming the mantles of both kingship and high priesthood, and extended their territory through conquest and forced conversion. But battles among themselves and with opponents escalated into a civil war in 63 B.C.E that resulted in Roman intervention and brought the Hasmonean dynasty to an end.