Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy

by Walter Willett

  12. McCullough, M.L., et al. “Diet Quality and Major Chronic Disease Risk in Men and Women: Moving Toward Improved Dietary Guidance.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76 (2002): 1261–71.

  13. Ibid.

  14. Chiuve, S.E., et al. “Alternative Dietary Indices Both Strongly Predict Risk of Chronic Disease.” Journal of Nutrition 142 (2012): 1009–18.

  15. Purdy, C., Evich, H. B. “The Money Behind the Fight Over Healthy Eating.” Politico, Oct. 7, 2015. www.politico.com/story/2015/10/the-money-behind-the-fight-over-healthy-eating-214517

  16. Wang, D. D., et al. “Improvements in US Diet Helped Reduce Disease Burden and Lower Premature Deaths, 1999–2012; Overall Diet Remains Poor.” Health Affairs 34 (2015): 1916–22.

  Chapter Three: What Can You Believe About Diet?

  1. Goodman, E. “To Swallow or Not to Swallow; That Is the New Vitamin Question.” Boston Globe April 7, 1994: A27

  2. Willett, W. Nutritional Epidemiology, 3rd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

  3. Huo, Y., et al. for the CSPPT Investigators. “Efficacy of Folic Acid Therapy in Primary Prevention of Stroke Among Adults with Hypertension in China: The CSPPT Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA 313 (2015): 1325–35.

  4. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group. “Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Risk Factor Changes and Mortality Results.” JAMA 248 (1982): 1465–77.

  5. American Journal of Public Health. 2016 Sep;106(9)

  6. Keys, A. Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis of Death and Coronary Heart Disease. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.

  7. Chowdhury, R., et al. “Association of Dietary, Circulating, and Supplement Fatty Acids with Coronary Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Annals of Internal Medicine 160 (2014): 398–406.

  8. Heberden, W. “Some Account of a Disorder of the Breast.” Medical Transactions of the Royal College of Physicians 2 (1786): 59–67.

  9. Ronksley, P. E., et al. “Association of Alcohol Consumption with Selected Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” BMJ 342 (2011): d671.

  10. Hines, L. M., et al. “Genetic Variation in Alcohol Dehydrogenase and the Beneficial Effect of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Myocardial Infarction. New England Journal of Medicine 344 (2001): 549–55.

  Chapter Four: Healthy Weight

  1. Kasman, M., et al. “An In-depth Look at the Lifetime Economic Cost of Obesity.” Brookings Institution, 2015. www.brookings.edu/~/media/events/2015/05/12-economic-costs-of-obesity/0512-obesity-presentation-v6-rm.pdf

  2. National Center for Health Statistics. “Health, United States, 2015.” Hyattsville, MD. 2015. Table 58: Normal Weight, Overweight, and Obesity Among Adults Aged 20 and Over, by Selected Characteristics: United States, Selected Years 1988–1994 Through 2011–2014.

  3. Ogden, C. L., et al. “Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity, and Extreme Obesity Among Adults: United States, Trends 1960–1962 Through 2007–2008.” National Center for Health Statistics (2010). www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_adult_07_08/obesity_adult_07_08.pdf

  4. Cawley, J., and C. Meyerhoefer. “The Medical Care Costs of Obesity: An Instrumental Variables Approach.” Journal of Health Economics 31 (2012): 219–30.

  5. Ng, M., et al. “Global, Regional, and National Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adults During 1980–2013: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.” Lancet 384 (2014): 766–81.

  6. Flegal, K. M., et al. “Association of All-Cause Mortality with Overweight and Obesity Using Standard Body Mass Index Categories: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” JAMA 309 (2013): 71–82.

  7. Global BMI Mortality Collaboration. “Body-Mass Index and All-Cause Mortality: Individual-Participant-Data Meta-analysis of 239 Prospective Studies in Four Continents.” Lancet 388 (2016): 776–86.

  8. Aune, D., et al. “BMI and All-Cause Mortality: Systematic Review and Non-linear Dose-Response Meta-analysis of 230 Cohorts with 3.74 Million Deaths Among 30.3 Million Participants.” BMJ 353 (2016): i2156.

  9. Ogden, C. L., et al. “Obesity and Socioeconomic Status in Adults: United States, 2005–2008.” National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief No. 50, 2010. www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db50.htm

  10. Willett, W. C., et al. “Guidelines for Healthy Weight.” New England Journal of Medicine 341 (1999): 427–34.

  11. Cerhan, J. R., et al. “A Pooled Analysis of Waist Circumference and Mortality in 650,000 Adults.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 89 (2014): 335–45.

  12. Willett, W. C., et al. Thinfluence: The Powerful and Surprising Effect Friends, Family, Work, and Environment Have on Weight. Emmaus, PA: Rodale (2014).

  13. Nieuwdorp, M., et al. “Role of the Microbiome in Energy Regulation and Metabolism.” Gastroenterology 146 (2014): 1525–33.

  14. U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service. Food Availability (per Capita) Data System. www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-availability-(per-capita)-data-system/.aspx#26715

  15. Stampfer, M. J., et al. “Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease in Women Through Diet and Lifestyle.” New England Journal of Medicine 343 (2000): 16–22.

  16. Banting, W. Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public. London: Self-published, 1863.

  17. Ludwig, D.S., et al. “High Glycemic Index Foods, Overeating, and Obesity.” Pediatrics 103 (1999): E26.

  18. Mozaffarian, D., et al. “Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men.” New England Journal of Medicine 364 (2011): 2392–404.

  19. Shai, I., et al. for the Dietary Intervention Randomized Controlled Trial (DIRECT) Group. “Weight Loss with a Low-Carbohydrate, Mediterranean, or Low-Fat Diet.” New England Journal of Medicine 359 (2008): 229–41.

  20. Schwarzfuchs, D., et al. “Four-Year Follow-up After Two-Year Dietary Interventions.” New England Journal of Medicine 367 (2012): 1373–74.

  21. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 1996. www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/pdf/sgrfull.pdf

  22. Manson, J. E., et al. “A Prospective Study of Walking as Compared with Vigorous Exercise in the Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease in Women.” New England Journal of Medicine 341 (1999): 650–8.

  23. Biswas, A., et al. “Sedentary Time and Its Association with Risk for Disease Incidence, Mortality, and Hospitalization in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Annals of Internal Medicine 162 (2015): 123–32.

  24. Ornish, D., et al. “Can Lifestyle Changes Reverse Coronary Heart Disease? The Lifestyle Heart Trial.” Lancet 336 (1990): 129–33.

  25. Tobias, D. K., et al. “Effect of Low-Fat Diet Interventions Versus Other Diet Interventions on Long-Term Weight Change in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology 3 (2015): 968–79.

  26. Halton, T. L., et al. “Low-Carbohydrate-Diet Score and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women.” New England Journal of Medicine 355 (2006): 1991–2002.

  27. Larsen, T. M., et al. “Diets with High or Low Protein Content and Glycemic Index for Weight-Loss Maintenance.” New England Journal of Medicine 363 (2010): 2102–13.

  28. Eaton, S. B., and M. Konner. “Paleolithic Nutrition—A Consideration of Its Nature and Current Implications.” New England Journal of Medicine 312 (1985): 283–89.

  29. Wing, R. R., and J. O. Hill. “Successful Weight Loss Maintenance.” Annual Review of Nutrition 21 (2001): 323–41.

  30. “The Truth About Dieting.” Consumer Reports 67 (2002): 22.

  31. Tobias, D. K., et al. “Effect of Low-Fat Diet Interventions Versus Other Diet Interventions on Long-Term Weight Change in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology 3 (2015): 968–79.

  Chapter Five: Straight Talk About Fat
/>   1. National Center for Health Statistics. “Health, United States, 2015.” Hyattsville, MD, 2016. Table 58: Normal Weight, Overweight, and Obesity Among Adults Aged 20 and over, by Selected Characteristics: United States, Selected Years 1988–1994 Through 2011–2014. www.cdc.gov/nchs/hus/contents2015.htm#058

  2. Innis, S. M. “Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acids and Brain Development.” Journal of Nutrition 137 (2007): 855–59.

  3. Hu, F. B., et al. Dietary Intake of Alpha-linolenic Acid and Risk of Fatal Ischemic Heart Disease Among Women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 69 (1999): 890–7.

  4. Wang, D. D., et al. “Association of Specific Dietary Fats with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality.” JAMA Internal Medicine 126 (2016): 1134–45.

  5. Hu, F. B., et al. “Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women.” New England Journal of Medicine 337 (1997): 1491–9.

  6. Hu, F. B., et al. “Diet, Lifestyle, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Women.” New England Journal of Medicine 345 (2001): 790–7.

  7. Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils: A Notice by the Food and Drug Administration. 80 Federal Register 34650 (June 17, 2015). www.federalregister.gov/articles/2015/06/17/2015-14883/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils

  8. Mayne, S. “Protecting Consumers from Trans Fat.” June 15, 2015. blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2015/06/protecting-consumers-from-trans-fat/

  9. Mozaffarian D. “Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease.” New England Journal of Medicine. 2006 Apr 13;354(15):1601–13.

  10. Mozaffarian, D., et al. “Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2016 Update: A Report from the American Heart Association.” Circulation 133 (2015): e38–e360.

  11. Sacks, F. M., et al. “Comparison of Weight-Loss Diets with Different Compositions of Fat, Protein, and Carbohydrates.” New England Journal of Medicine 360 (2009): 859–73.

  12. Tobias, D. K., et al. “Effect of Low-Fat Diet Interventions Versus Other Diet Interventions on Long-Term Weight Change in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology 3 (2015): 968–79.

  13. Page, I. H., et al. “Atherosclerosis and the Fat Content of the Diet.” Circulation 16 (1957): 164–78.

  14. Appel, L. J., et al., for the OmniHeart Collaborative Research Group. “Effects of Protein, Monounsaturated Fat, and Carbohydrate Intake on Blood Pressure and Serum Lipids: Results of the OmniHeart Randomized Trial.” JAMA 294 (2005): 2455–64.

  15. USDA Economic Research Service. Food Availability (per Capita) Data System. www.ers.usda.gov/datafiles/Food_Availabily_Per_Capita_Data_System/Food_Availability/eggs.xls

  16. Hu, F. B., et al. “A Prospective Study of Egg Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Men and Women.” JAMA 281 (1999): 1387–94.

  17. Rong, Y., et al. “Egg Consumption and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke: Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies.” BMJ 346 (2013): e8539.

  18. Mensink, R. P., and M. B. Katan. “Effects of Monounsaturated Fatty Acids Versus Complex Carbohydrates on High-density Lipoproteins in Healthy Men and Women.” Lancet 1 (1987): 122–25.

  19. Knopp, R. H., et al., “Long-Term Cholesterol-Lowering Effects of Four Fat-Restricted Diets in Hyper-Cholesterolemic and Combined Hyperlipidemic Men: The Dietary Alternatives Study.” Journal of the American Medical Association 278 (1997): 1509–15.

  20. Knopp, R. H., et al. “Long-Term Cholesterol-Lowering Effects of Four Fat-Restricted Diets in Hyper-Cholesterolemic and Combined Hyperlipidemic Men: The Dietary Alternatives Study.” JAMA 278 (1997): 1509–15.

  21. Wang, D. D., et al. “Association of Specific Dietary Fats with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality.” JAMA Internal Medicine 126 (2016): 1134–45.

  22. Hu, F. B., et al. “Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women.” New England Journal of Medicine 337 (1997): 1491–9.

  23. de Lorgeril, M., et al. “Mediterranean Alpha-linolenic Acid-Rich Diet in Secondary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease.” Lancet 343 (1994): 1454–59.

  24. de Lorgeril, M., et al. “Mediterranean Diet, Traditional Risk Factors, and the Rate of Cardiovascular Complications After Myocardial Infarction: Final Report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study.” Circulation 99 (1999): 779–85.

  25. Estruch, R., and the PREDIMED Study Investigators. “Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet.” New England Journal of Medicine 368 (2013): 1279–90.

  26. Chowdhury, R., et al. “Association of Dietary, Circulating, and Supplement Fatty Acids with Coronary Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Annals of Internal Medicine 160 (2014): 398–406.

  27. Pimpin, L., et al. “Is Butter Back? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Butter Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Total Mortality.” PLoS One 11 (2016): e0158118.

  28. Chen, M., et al. “Dairy Fat and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in 3 Cohorts of US Adults.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 104 (2016): 1209–17.

  29. Kim, E. H., et al. “Dietary Fat and Risk of Postmenopausal Breast Cancer in a 20-Year Follow-up.” American Journal of Epidemiology 164 (2006): 990–7.

  30. Boeke, C. E., et al. Dietary Fat Intake in Relation to Lethal Breast Cancer in Two Large Prospective Cohort Studies.” Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 146 (2014): 383–92.

  31. Toledo, E., et al. “Mediterranean Diet and Invasive Breast Cancer Risk Among Women at High Cardiovascular Risk in the PREDIMED Trial: A Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA Internal Medicine 175 (2015): 1752–60.

  32. Cho, E., et al. “Premenopausal Fat Intake and Risk of Breast Cancer.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 95 (2003): 1079–85.

  33. Farvid, M. S., et al. “Premenopausal Dietary Fat in Relation to Pre- and Post-menopausal Breast Cancer.” Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 145 (2014): 255–65.

  34. Prentice, R. L., et al. “Low-Fat Dietary Pattern and Risk of Invasive Breast Cancer: The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial.” JAMA 295 (2006): 629–42.

  35. Martin, L. J., et al. “A Randomized Trial of Dietary Intervention for Breast Cancer Prevention.” Cancer Research 71 (2011): 123–33.

  36. Bouvard, V., et al. on behalf of the International Agency for Research on Cancer Monograph Working Group. “Carcinogenicity of Consumption of Red and Processed Meat.” Lancet Oncology 16 (2015): 1599–1600.

  37. Leitzmann, M. F., et al. “Dietary Intake of n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acids and the Risk of Prostate Cancer.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80 (2004): 204–16.

  Chapter Six: Carbohydrates for Better and Worse

  1. National Center for Health Statistics. “Crude and Age-Adjusted Rates of Diagnosed Diabetes per 100 Civilian, Non-Institutionalized Adult Population, United States, 1980–2014.” www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/prev/national/figageadult.htm

  2. Yang, W., et al. “Prevalence of Diabetes Among Men and Women in China.” New England Journal of Medicine 362 (2010):1090–101.

  3. Block, G. “Foods Contributing to Energy Intake in the US: Data from NHANES III and NHANES 1999–2000.” Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 17 (2004): 439–47.

  4. World Health Organization. Guideline: Sugars Intake for Adults and Children. Geneva, 2015.

  5. Schwingshackl, L., Hoffmann, G. “Comparison of Effects of Long-Term Low-Fat vs High-Fat Diets on Blood Lipid Levels in Overweight or Obese Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 113 (2013): 1640–61.

  6. Jenkins, D. J., et al. “Glycemic Index of Foods: A Physiological Basis for Carbohydrate Exchange.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34 (1981): 362–68.

  7. Bhupathiraju, S. N., et al. “Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Results from 3 Large US Cohorts and an Updated Meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100 (2014): 218–32.

  8. Ibid.

  9.
Chiasson, J. L., et al. for the STOP-NIDDM Trail Research Group. “Acarbose for Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: The STOP-NIDDM Randomised Trial.” Lancet 359 (2002): 2072–7.

  10. Gadgil, M. D., et al. “The Effects of Carbohydrate, Unsaturated Fat, and Protein Intake on Measures of Insulin Sensitivity: Results from the OmniHeart Trial.” Diabetes Care 36 (2013): 1132–7.

  11. Mozaffarian, D., et al. “Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men.” New England Journal of Medicine 364 (2011): 2392–404.

  12. Bhupathiraju, S. N., et al. Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes. Op cit.

  13. Liu, S., et al. “A Prospective Study of Dietary Glycemic Load, Carbohydrate Intake and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in U.S. Women.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (2000): 1455–61.

  14. Mirrahimi, A., et al. “Associations of Glycemic Index and Load with Coronary Heart Disease Events: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohorts.” Journal of the American Heart Association 1 (2012): e000752.

  15. Sommers, T., et al. “Emergency Department Burden of Constipation in the United States from 2006 to 2011.” American Journal of Gastroenterology 110 (2015): 572–79.

  16. Park, Y., et al. “Dietary fiber Intake and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Pooled Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies.” Journal of the American Medical Association 294 (2005): 2849–57.

  17. Farvid, M. S., et al. “Dietary Fiber Intake in Young Adults and Breast Cancer Risk.” Pediatrics 137 (2016): e20151226.

  18. Mozaffarian, R. S., et al. “Identifying Whole Grain Foods: A Comparison of Different Approaches for Selecting More Healthful Whole Grain Products.” Public Health Nutrition 16 (2013): 2255–64.

  Chapter Seven: Choose Healthier Sources of Protein

  1. World Cancer Research Fund, American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research, 2007. www.aicr.org/assets/docs/pdf/reports/Second_Expert_Report.pdf