Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy

by Walter Willett

  7. Gaskins, A. J., et al. “Dietary Folate and Reproductive Success Among Women Undergoing Assisted Reproduction.” Obstetrics and Gynecology 124 (2014): 801–9.

  8. Jacques, P. F., et al. “The Effect of Folic Acid Fortification on Plasma Folate and Total Homocysteine Concentrations.” New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999): 1449–54.

  9. Li, Y., et al. “Folic Acid Supplementation and the Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Journal of the American Heart Association 5 (2016): e003768.

  10. Zhang, S. M., et al. “Plasma Folate, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Homocysteine, and Risk of Breast Cancer.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 95 (2003): 373–80.

  11. Nan, H., et al. “Prospective Study of Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer Before and After Folic Acid Fortification in the United States.” Annals of Epidemiology 23 (2013): 558–63.

  12. Huo, Y., et al. “Efficacy of Folic Acid Therapy in Primary Prevention of Stroke Among Adults with Hypertension in China: The CSPPT Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA 313 (2015): 1325–35.

  13. Hemilä, H., and E. Chalker.“Vitamin C for Preventing and Treating the Common Cold.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2013): CD000980.

  14. Kalyani, R. R., et al. “Vitamin D Treatment for the Prevention of Falls in Older Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 58 (2010): 1299–310.

  15. Bischoff-Ferrari, H. A., et al. “Monthly High-Dose Vitamin D Treatment for the Prevention of Functional Decline: A Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA Internal Medicine 176 (2016): 175–83.

  16. Feldman, D., et al. “The Role of Vitamin D in Reducing Cancer Risk and Progression.” Nature Reviews Cancer 14 (2014): 342–57.

  17. Ford, J. A., et al. for the RECORD Trial Group. “Cardiovascular Disease and Vitamin D Supplementation: Trial Analysis, Systematic Review, and Meta-analysis.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 100 (2014): 746–55.

  18. Munger, K. L., et al. “Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels and Risk of Multiple Sclerosis.” JAMA 296 (2006): 2832–8.

  19. Munger, K. L., et al. “Vitamin D Intake and Incidence of Multiple Sclerosis.” Neurology 13 (2004): 60–5.

  20. Mokry, L. E., et al. “Vitamin D and Risk of Multiple Sclerosis: A Mendelian Randomization Study.” PLoS Medicine 12 (2015): e1001866.

  21. Chandler, P. D., et al. “Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on Inflammatory Markers in African Americans: Results of a Four-Arm, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial.” Cancer Prevention Research 7 (2014): 218–25.

  22. Jackson, R. D., et al. “Calcium Plus Vitamin D Supplementation and the Risk of Fractures.” New England Journal of Medicine 354 (2006): 669–83.

  23. Lee, I. M., et al. “Vitamin E in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: The Women’s Health Study: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” JAMA 294 (2005): 56–65.

  24. Ames, B. N., et al. “The Causes and Prevention of Cancer.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92 (1995): 5258–65.

  25. Watson, J. “Oxidants, Antioxidants and the Current Incurability of Metastatic Cancers.” Open Biology 3 (2013): 120144.

  26. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. “A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation with Vitamins C and E, Beta-carotene, and Zinc for Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Vision Loss: AREDS Report No. 8.” Archives of Ophthalmology 119 (2001): 1417–36; Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. “A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation with Vitamins C and E and Beta-carotene for Age-Related Cataract and Vision Loss: AREDS Report No. 9.” Archives of Ophthalmology 119 (2001): 1439–52.

  27. Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research Group. “Lutein + Zeaxanthin and Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Age-Related Macular Degeneration: The Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA 309 (2013): 2005–15.

  28. Wu, J., et al. “Intakes of Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and Other Carotenoids and Age-Related Macular Degeneration During 2 Decades of Prospective Follow-up.” JAMA Ophthalmology 133 (2015): 1415–24.

  29. Grodstein, F. A., et al. “A Randomized Trial of Beta Carotene Supplementation and Cognitive Function in Men: The Physicians’ Health Study II.” Archives of Internal Medicine 167 (2007): 2184–90.

  30. Glynn, R. J., et al. “Effects of Random Allocation to Vitamin E Supplementation on the Occurrence of Venous Thromboembolism: Report from the Women’s Health Study.” Circulation 116 (2007): 1497–503.

  31. Forbes, S. C., et al. “Effect of Nutrients, Dietary Supplements and Vitamins on Cognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Canadian Geriatrics Journal 18 (2015): 231–45.

  32. Wang, H., et al. “Vitamin E Intake and Risk of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Pooled Analysis of Data from 5 Prospective Cohort Studies.” American Journal of Epidemiology 173 (2011): 595–602.

  33. Miller, E. R., et al. “Meta-analysis: High-Dosage Vitamin E Supplementation May Increase All-Cause Mortality.” Annals of Internal Medicine 142 (2005): 37–46.

  34. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids: A Report of the Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and of Interpretation and Use of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, c2000.

  35. Booth, S. L., et al. “Food Sources and Dietary Intakes of Vitamin K-1 (Phylloquinone) in the American Diet: Data from the FDA Total Diet Study.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96 (1996): 149–54.

  36. Sacks, F. M., et al. for the DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. “Effects on Blood Pressure of Reduced Dietary Sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Diet.” New England Journal of Medicine 344 (2001): 3–10.

  37. Clark, L. C., et al. “Effects of Selenium Supplementation for Cancer Prevention in Patients with Carcinoma of the Skin. A Randomized Controlled Trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group.” JAMA 276 (1996): 1957–63.

  38. Lippman, S. M., et al. “Effect of Selenium and Vitamin E on Risk of Prostate Cancer and Other Cancers: The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT).” JAMA 301 (2009): 39–51.

  39. Singh, M., and R. R. Das. “Zinc for the Common Cold.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2013): CD001364; Science, M., et al. “Zinc for the Treatment of the Common Cold: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 184 (2012): E551–61.

  40. Gaziano, J. M., et al. “Multivitamins in the Prevention of Cancer in Men: the Physicians’ Health Study II Randomized Controlled Trial.” JAMA 308 (2012): 1871–80.

  41. Sesso, H. D., et al. “Multivitamins in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Men: The Physicians’ Health Study II Randomized Controlled Trial.” JAMA 308 (2012): 1751–60.

  Chapter Twelve: The Planet’s Health Matters Too

  1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks, 1990–2015. April 2017. www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2017-02/documents/2017_complete_report.pdf

  2. Nelson, M. E., et al. “Alignment of Healthy Dietary Patterns and Environmental Sustainability: A Systematic review.” Advances in Nutrition 7 (2016) 1005–25.

  3. City of Boston, Greenovate Boston, Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management, Boston Green Ribbon Commission. Climate Ready Boston. December 2016. www.boston.gov/sites/default/files/20161207_climate_ready_boston_digital2.pdf

  4. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The World Population Prospects: 2015 Revision. www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/2015-report.html

  5. United Nations Treaty Collection. Environment, Chapter X
XVII. 7. d Paris agreement. 12 December 2015. treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&lang=en

  6. EAT Foundation. EAT-Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems. December 9, 2016. eatforum.org/article/eat-lancet-commission-on-healthy-diets-from-sustainable-food-systems/

  7. Heller, M. C., Keoleian, G. A. Greenhouse Gas Emission Estimates of U.S. Dietary Choices and Food Loss. Journal of Industrial Ecology 19 (2014): 391–401.

  8. Culinary Institute of America and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Menus of Change: 2016 Annual Report. www.menusofchange.org/images/uploads/pdf/CIA-Harvard_MenusOfChangeAnnualReport2016_(7-1)1.pdf

  9. Brower, M., and W. Leon. The Consumer’s Guide to Effective Environmental Choices. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999.

  10. Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. February 2015. health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/

  11. Burwell, S. M., Vilsack, T. “2015 Dietary Guidelines: Giving You the Tools You Need to Make Healthy Choices.” HHS.gov blog, Oct. 6, 2015. www.hhs.gov/blog/2015/10/06/2015-dietary-guidelines.html

  12. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 8th edition, December 2015. health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/

  13. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Cattle and Beef, Statistics and Information. April 2017. www.ers.usda.gov/topics/animal-products/cattle-beef/statistics-information/

  14. Vogliano, C., Brown, K. “The State of America’s Wasted Food and Opportunities to Make a Difference.” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 116 (2016): (2016): 1199–1207.

  Chapter Thirteen: Putting It All Together

  1. Willett, W. C. “Balancing Life-style and Genomics Research for Disease Prevention.” Science 296 (2002): 695–8.

  2. Keys, A. Seven Countries: A Multivariate Analysis of Death and Coronary Heart Disease. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.

  3. Keys, A. B., and M. Keys. How to Eat Well and Stay Well the Mediterranean Way. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975.

  4. Stampfer, M. J., et al. “Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease in Women Through Diet and Lifestyle.” New England Journal of Medicine 343 (2000): 16–22; Chomistek, A. K., et al. “Healthy Lifestyle in the Primordial Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Among Young Women.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 65 (2015): 43–51.

  5. de Longeril, M., et al. “Mediterranean Diet, Traditional Risk Factors, and the Risk of Cardiovascular Complications After Myocardial Infarction: Final Report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study.” Circulation 99 (1999): 779–85.

  6. Estruch, R., and the PREDIMED Study Investigators. “Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet.” New England Journal of Medicine 368 (2013): 1279–90.

  7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 8th Edition, December 2015. www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/

  8. Anand, S. S., et al. “Food Consumption and Its Impact on Cardiovascular Disease: Importance of Solutions Focused on the Globalized Food System: A Report from the Workshop Convened by the World Heart Federation.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology 66 (2015): 1590–614.

  9. Drewnowski, A. “Obesity and the Food Environment: Dietary Energy Density and Diet Costs.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 27 (2004): 154–62.

  10. Stewart, H., et al. “The Cost of Satisfying Fruit and Vegetable Recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines.” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, February 2016. www.ers.usda.gov/media/2023016/eb27.pdf

  11. Frazäo, E. “High Costs of Poor Eating Patterns in the United States.” In Frazäo E., ed. America’s Eating Habits: Changes & Consequences. Washington, D.C.: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1999. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750

  Chapter Fourteen: Healthy Eating in Special Situations

  1. National Research Council. Maternal Nutrition and the Course of Pregnancy. Report of the Committee on Maternal Nutrition, Food and Nutrition Board. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1970.

  2. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. “Weight Gain During Pregnancy.” www.acog.org/Resources-And-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Obstetric-Practice/Weight-Gain-During-Pregnancy

  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Folic Acid: Recommendations.” http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/folicacid/recommendations.html

  4. Brigham and Women’s Hospital. “The Pregnancy Food Guide.” www.brighamandwomens.org/publicaffairs/images/bwh_pregnancy_food_guide.pdf

  5. Lucas, M., et al. “Coffee, Caffeine, and Risk of Completed Suicide: Results from Three Prospective Cohorts of American Adults.” World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 15 (2014): 377–86.

  6. Chang, S. C., et al. “Dietary Flavonoid Intake and Risk of Incident Depression in Midlife and Older Women.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2016): ajcn124545. Published online, July 13, 2016.

  7. Johnson, G. H., and K. Fritsche. “Effect of Dietary Linoleic Acid on Markers of Inflammation in Healthy Persons: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 112 (2012): 1029–41.

  8. Tsai, A. C., et al. “Suicide Mortality in Relation to Dietary Intake of n-3 and n-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Fish: Equivocal Findings from 3 Large US Cohort Studies.” American Journal of Epidemiology 179 (2014): 1458–66.

  9. Satizabal, C. L., et al. “Incidence of Dementia over Three Decades in the Framingham Heart Study.” New England Journal of Medicine 374 (2016): 523–32.

  10. Morris, M. C., et al. “MIND Diet Slows Cognitive Decline with Aging.” Alzheimer’s & Dementia 11 (2015): 1015–22.

  11. Valls-Pedret, C., et al. “Mediterranean Diet and Age-Related Cognitive Decline: A Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA Internal Medicine 175 (2015): 1094–103.

  Chapter Fifteen: shopping tips, Recipes, and Menus

  1. Smith-Spangler, C., et al. “Are Organic Foods Safer or Healthier Than Conventional Alternatives? A Systematic Review.” Annals of Internal Medicine 157 (2012): 348–66.

  * * *

  Index

  A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.

  Bold page numbers refer to figures.

  advice, dietary. See guidelines/advice; specific topic or source

  African Americans, 179, 218, 219, 226

  Agatston, Arthur, 68

  age, 145, 155, 164, 178, 191, 221

  and bones, 193, 200

  and cancer, 100–101, 137, 161

  and exercise/physical activity, 59, 200

  and hydration, 173

  and weight, 38, 42, 45, 59

  See also children; elderly

  agriculture industry. See food industry; food production

  ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), 80, 81, 82, 99, 102–3, 140, 141

  alcohol, 187–91

  abuse of, 176

  as addictive, 189

  benefits of, 187, 189–90

  and cholesterol, 187–88, 189, 191

  and death, 187, 188, 189

  and drugs/medications, 176, 189

  and exercise, 190, 191

  and folate/folic acid, 188, 189, 191, 212, 234

  guidelines/advice concerning, 3, 5, 12, 15, 16, 22, 187–89, 190–91, 250

  and hydration, 173

  and magnesium, 227

  and Mediterranean diet, 14, 253

  and memory, 269

  and men, 5, 187–88, 188, 190, 191, 250 />
  in moderation, 187–89, 191

  and pregnancy, 189

  studies about, 31, 36–37, 254

  and vitamins, 210, 234

  and women, 188–89, 188, 190–91, 250

  and zinc, 233

  See also specific health condition

  allergies, 135, 138, 176, 280

  alpha-carotene, 164, 207, 208, 214

  Alternate Healthy Eating Index, 16, 22–23, 56

  Always Hungry? (Ludwig), 51

  Alzheimer’s disease, 94, 148, 268

  amaranth, 274

  American Cancer Society, 31, 110, 154

  American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 262

  American Heart Association (AHA), 87, 110, 129, 154, 231, 255, 265, 287

  American Institute for Cancer Research, 159

  American Journal of Public Health, 33

  Ames, Bruce, 165, 221

  amino acids, 133–34, 140, 208–9, 213

  anemia, 209–10

  anencephaly, 205–6, 210, 212

  animals

  antibiotics for, 142

  cancer in, 141

  and protein, 137

  as subjects of scientific research, 35–36

  Annals of Internal Medicine, 97, 98

  antacids, calcium, 224–25

  antibiotics, 142, 244, 247, 248, 282

  antioxidants, 126, 221–22

  and aging, 221, 222

  and alcohol, 190

  benefits of, 221, 222

  and brain, 222

  and carotenoids, 164, 214–15, 221, 222

  and coffee, 185

  definition of, 221

  and free radicals, 221, 222

  and fruits and vegetables, 151, 153, 167

  functions of, 163–64, 221

  and genetics, 221

  and grains, 273

  studies about, 214, 221

  supplements, 221, 222, 256

  and traditional diets, 256

  and vitamins, 215, 216, 220, 221

  See also specific antioxidant or health condition

  apple cider vinegar diet, 66

  apples, 117, 118, 153, 156, 161, 187