Muhammad

by Karen Armstrong

  Unless Western civilization intellectually and socially, politically and economically, and the Christian church theologically, can learn to treat other men with fundamental respect, these two in their turn will have failed to come to terms with the actualities of the twentieth century. The problems raised in this are, of course, as profound as anything that we have touched on for Islam.52

  The brief history of the twenty-first century shows that neither side has mastered these lessons. If we are to avoid catastrophe, the Muslim and Western worlds must learn not merely to tolerate but to appreciate one another. A good place to start is with the figure of Muhammad: a complex man, who resists facile, ideologically-driven categorization, who sometimes did things that were difficult or impossible for us to accept, but who had profound genius and founded a religion and cultural tradition that was not based on the sword but whose name—“Islam”—signified peace and reconciliation.

  Glossary

  Terms

  ‘abd Slave

  ahl al-beit People of the household. Muhammad’s immediate family.

  ahl al-kitab People of the Book. Usually Jews and Christians.

  Allahu akhbar “God is greater.” A phrase that reminds Muslims of the transcendence and supremacy of God.

  al-Rahim The Merciful. One of the names of God.

  al-Rahman The Compassionate. One of the names of God.

  Ansar The Helpers. The Medinese Muslims.

  ‘asibiyyah Tribal solidarity.

  ayah (Plural: ayat) Sign, parable, symbol, a verse of the Qur’an.

  badawah Nomadic; hence Bedouin.

  banat Allah Daughters of Allah. See gharaniq.

  dahr Time, fate.

  dhikr Reminder, remembrance.

  din Religion, way of life, moral law, reckoning.

  fatah Literally “opening.” Victory.

  gharaniq The three goddesses Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat. “Daughters of Allah,” who were compared to beautiful “cranes”.

  ghazu Acquisition raid, essential to the Bedouin economy. Ghazi: Warrior, raider, man of war.

  hadarah Settled life—as opposed to badawah.

  hadith (plural: ahadith) Report, a maxim or saying attributed to the Prophet.

  hajj The pilgrimage to Mecca. Hajji: pilgrim.

  hakam Arbitrator. Muhammad’s political role in Medina.

  hanif Originally a pre-Islamic monotheist. In the Qur’an, the word refers to a person who followed the hanifiyyah, the pure religion of Abraham, before this split into rival sects.

  haram Sacred; forbidden—hence “sanctuary,” especially the sanctuary surrounding the Kabah where all violence was prohibited.

  hasab Ancestral honor; the particular virtues of a tribe that tribes-men had inherited from their forefathers.

  hijab Curtain, veil, a covering for something precious or sacred.

  hijrah Migration, especially the Muslims’ migrations to Medina.

  hilm A traditional Arab virtue which became central to Islam: forbearance, patience, mercy, tranquillity.

  islam Surrender, submission, the name eventually applied to the religion of the Qur’an.

  ‘isra A night journey, especially that of Muhammad to Jerusalem.

  istighna’ Haughty self-reliance, aggressive independence and self-sufficiency.

  jahiliyyah Traditionally translated “Time of Ignorance,” and used to apply to the pre-Islamic period in Arabia, but in the Muslim sources its primary meaning is violent and explosive irascibility, arrogance, tribal chauvinism.

  jahim An obscure word, usually translated “raging fire.” Hell.

  jihad Struggle, effort, endeavour.

  jilbab A garment, cloak, or covering.

  jinni (plural: jinn) “Unseen being,” usually one of the sprites who haunted the Arabian desert, inspired poets, and led people astray; also stranger, a person hitherto “unseen.”

  Kabah Literally, cube. The granite shrine in the Haram, dedicated to Allah.

  kafir (Plural: kafirun) Traditionally translated “unbeliever.” More accurately it refers to somebody who ungratefully and aggressively rejects Allah and refuses to acknowledge his dependence on the Creator.

  kalifa The successor of Muhammad, the caliph.

  karim Generous hero; the Bedouin ideal.

  kufr Ingratitude; insolence.

  kunya Honorary title assumed by a man after the birth of his first son; e.g. Abu Bakr, the father of Bakr.

  layla Night; also, a woman’s name.

  layla al-qadr Night of destiny; the night when Muhammad received the first revelation from God.

  masjid A place for prostration; later, mosque.

  mirbad A place for drying dates.

  mu’min Those who faithfully live up to the Muslim ideal.

  munafiq (Plural: munafiqun) Waverer; hypocrite; the term applied to an uncommitted Muslim who followed Ibn Ubbay.

  muruwah The chivalric code of the Bedouin, comprising loyalty to the tribe, courage, endurance, generosity, and reverence for the tribal ancestors.

  muslim A person who has surrendered his or her entire being to God; who has made the act of islam.

  nadhir A messenger who brings a warning to his people.

  nasr Help, including military support.

  qiblah The direction of prayer.

  Qur’an “Recitation.” The scripture that was revealed to Muhammad by God.

  rashidun The “rightly guided” ones; the first four caliphs.

  ruh Spirit. In the Qur’an, the divine spirit of revelation.

  sakinah The spirit of peace and serenity.

  salam Peace; often used by Muslims as a greeting.

  salat The ritual worship performed five times a day by Muslims.

  salihat The works of justice prescribed by the Qur’an.

  saraya A wife with slave status, but whose children are free.

  sayyid Chief of a clan or tribe.

  shahadah The Muslim declaration of faith: “I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet.”

  shari‘ah Originally, the path to the watering hole. The lifeline of a nomadic tribe; later applied to the body of Muslim law.

  shaytan A “satan.” A tempter who could be a human being or one of the jinn, who leads people astray and inspires facile, empty desires.

  shirk Idolatry, associating other beings with God, putting other deities or purely human values on the same level as Allah. The cardinal Muslim sin.

  sunnah A path, a way of life.

  suq Market, trade fair.

  surah A chapter of the Qur’an.

  taqarrush Acquisition, gaining. Perhaps the origin of “Quraysh.”

  taqwa’ Mindfulness; an attitude of sensitivity to and consciousness of God.

  tawaf The seven ritual circumambulations around the Kabah.

  tawhid “Making one”, the unity of God, realized in the integration of the human person.

  tazakka Purification, refinement. An early name for the religion of Islam.

  ummah Community.

  umrah The Lesser Pilgrimage. The rites of the hajj that were performed within the city of Mecca, excluding those performed in the surrounding countryside.

  yawm ad-din Day of reckoning; moment of truth.

  zakat Literally “purification” Alms; a charitable donation to the needy. One of the essential practices of Islam.

  zalim Outsider; a person who is abhorred because he does not belong to the tribe.

  Places

  ‘Abd Shams The neighborhood of the Qurayshan clan of ‘Abd Shams in Mecca.

  ‘Aqabah The gully outside Mecca where Muhammad first met with pilgrims from Yathrib.

  ‘Arafat A mountain sixteen miles east of Mecca; one of the stations of the hajj, where pilgrims made an all-night vigil.

  Badr A watering hole on the Red Sea coast, where the Muslims achieved their first victory over the Meccan army.

  Hijaz A region in the northern Arabian steppes.

  Hira’ A mountain outsid
e Mecca, where Muhammad received the first revelation in about 610.

  Hudaybiyyah A well within the confines of the Meccan sanctuary, where Muhammad made a peace treaty with the Quraysh in 628.

  Khaybar An agricultural settlement of Jewish tribes, north of Medina.

  Marwah A hill to the east of the Kabah; during the hajj, pilgrims would run seven times between Marwah and Safe.

  Mecca The commercial city ruled by the Quraysh; the birthplace of Muhammad.

  Medina The name given by the Muslims to the settlement of Yathrib; the city of the Prophet.

  Mina A valley about five miles east of Mecca; one of the stations of the hajj.

  Mu’tah A town near the Syrian border, where the Muslim army suffered a severe military defeat.

  Muzdalifah One of the stations of the hajj; a valley between Mina and ‘Arafat, thought originally to have been the home of the thunder god.

  Nakhlah An oasis to the south-east of Mecca, where the goddess Al-Uzzah had her shrine and sanctuary.

  Qudhayd A city on the Red Sea coast, where the goddess Manat had her shrine and sanctuary.

  Safa A hill to the east of the Kabah; during the hajj, pilgrims would run between Safa and Marwah.

  Sana’a A city in southern Arabia; now the capital of Yemen.

  Ta’if An agricultural colony to the south-east of Mecca; the site of the sanctuary of the goddess Al-Lat and home of the tribe of Thaqif. Ta’if supplied Mecca with most of its food, and many of the Quraysh had summer homes there.

  Uhud A mountain to the north of Medina; the Meccans inflicted a severe defeat over the Muslim army on the adjoining plain.

  ‘Ukaz The site of one of the great trade fairs, where a poetry contest was held each year.

  Yathrib An agricultural settlement, some 250 miles north of Mecca, populated by Arabs and Jewish tribes. After the hijrah, it became known as Medina, the city of the Prophet.

  Zamzam The sacred spring in the Meccan Haram.

  People

  ‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy A chief of the Khazraj clan in Medina, who led the opposition to Muhammad.

  ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The father of Muhammad, who died before he was born.

  Abdullah ibn Jahsh The cousin of Muhammad; brother of his wife Zaynab, and Ubaydallah, the hanif.

  ‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The uncle of Muhammad.

  ‘Abd al-Muttalib Muhammad’s grandfather.

  Abu l-‘As ar-Rabi The husband of Muhammad’s daughter, Zaynab, who resisted conversion to Islam for many years.

  Abu Ja’rir at-Tabari Historian and biographer of Muhammad.

  Abu l-Hakam ibn Hisham See Abu Jahl.

  Abu Bakr A close and trusted friend of Muhammad; one of the first converts to Islam; the father of ‘A’isha, the beloved wife of the Prophet.

  Abu Bara’ Chief of the Bedouin tribe of ‘Amir; Muhammad married his daughter Zaynab bint Khuzaymah after the battle of Uhud.

  Abu Jahl “Father of Insolence,” the nickname given by the Muslims to Abu l-Hakam; the most virulent of Muhammad’s early opponents.

  Abu Lahab ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The half-brother of Abu Talib; an early opponent of Muhammad. After Abu Talib’s death, he became the chief of the clan of Hashim.

  Abu Sufyan ibn Harb Chief of the Qurayshan clan of ‘Abd Shams; a leading opponent of Islam.

  Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib Muhammad’s uncle, guardian, and protector. ‘A’isha bint Abi Bakr Daughter of Abu Bakr; Muhammad’s beloved young wife.

  Al-Muttalib One of the Meccan clans, closely related to Hashim, Muhammad’s clan.

  ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib Abu Talib’s son; the ward of Muhammad and Khadijah. He married Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter.

  Aminah bint Wahb Muhammad’s mother; she died during his infancy.

  Amir A Meccan clan.

  ‘Asad The Meccan clan to which Khadijah belonged.

  Aslam A Bedouin tribe.

  ‘Amr ibn al-‘As A leading warrior in the Meccan army and an opponent of Islam.

  Anas ibn Malik A friend of Muhammad; present when the Verses of the Hijab were revealed.

  Aws One of the Arab tribes in Medina.

  Bani Qaylah “The Sons of Qaylah.” The Arab tribe that migrated from southern Arabia to Yathrib during the sixth century and later split into the Aws and Khazraj.

  Bara’ ibn Mar’ar A chief of Khazraj; the patron of Muhammad during the Pledge of War (622).

  Bilal An Abyssinian slave who converted to Islam; he became the first muezzin to call the Muslims to prayer.

  Budayl ibn Warqa Chief of the Bedouin tribe of Khuza’ah.

  Fatimah bint Muhammad The youngest daugther of Muhammad and Khadijah; the wife of ‘Ali.

  Gabriel The angel or spirit of the divine revelation.

  Ghassan An Arab tribe on the Byzantine border that had converted to Christianity and become an ally of Byzantium.

  Ghatafan A Bedouin tribe, based in the desert region east of Medina, allied to Ibn Ubayy and the opponents of Muhammad.

  Hafsah bint ‘Umar The daughter of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab; the wife of Muhammad; a special friend of ‘A’isha.

  Hamzah ibn al-Muttalib One of Muhammad’s uncles; a warrior of prodigious strength, who converted to Islam and died at the battle of Uhud.

  Hasan ibn ‘Ali The Prophet’s grandson, the older son of ‘Ali and Fatimah.

  Hashim The Meccan clan to which Muhammad belonged.

  Hind bint Abi Umayyah See Umm Salamah.

  Hind bint ‘Utbah The wife of Abu Sufyan; an implacable enemy of Muhammad.

  Hubal A god probably imported from the Nabatean region and venerated in Mecca; his stone effigy stood beside the Kabah.

  Hulays ibn ‘Alaqamah Chief of the Bedouin tribe of al-Harith.

  Husayn ibn ‘Ali The younger son of ‘Ali and Fatimah.

  Huyay ibn Akhtab Chief of the Jewish tribe of Nadir.

  Ibn Dughunnah A Bedouin chieftain confederated to the Quraysh; he became the protector of Abu Bakr.

  Ibn Ishaq Muhammad ibn Ishaq; the first biographer of Muhammad.

  Ibn Sa‘d Muhammad ibn Sa‘d; Muslim historian and biographer of the Prophet.

  Ibn Ubayy See ‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy. ‘Ikrimah Son of Abu Jahl; one of the leaders of the Meccan opposition to Muhammad.

  Ja’far ibn Abi Talib Cousin of Muhammad.

  Jumah A Meccan clan of Quraysh.

  Jurham A Bedouin tribe.

  Juwayriyyah bint al-Harith Daughter of a Bedouin chieftain; wife of Muhammad.

  Khadijah bint al-Khuwaylid Muhammad’s first wife.

  Khalid ibn al-Walid One of Mecca’s outstanding warriors; opponent of Muhammad for many years.

  Khazraj One of the Arab tribes in Medina.

  Khuza’ah One of the Bedouin tribes that had controlled the Meccan sanctuary before the arrival of the Quraysh.

  Kilab An Arab tribe allied to the Jewish tribe of Quraysh.

  Makhzum A Meccan clan of Quraysh.

  Maryam An Egyptian Christian; saraya wife of Muhammad.

  Maymunah bint al-Harith Sister of ‘Abbas; married to Muhammad during the Lesser Pilgrimage of 629.

  Mus‘ab ibn ‘Umayr The Muslim sent to instruct the Medinese before the hijrah.

  Mu’tim ibn ‘Adi Muhammad’s protector during his last years in Mecca before the hijrah.

  Nadir A powerful Jewish tribe of Medina opposed to Muhammad; exiled from Medina after an assassination attempt; took refuge in Khaybar. Nadiri: a member of Nadir.

  Qaswa’ Muhammad’s favorite camel.

  Qaynuqa‘ A Jewish tribe in Medina that controlled the market; they rebelled against Muhammad and were expelled from Medina.

  Quraysh Muhammad’s tribe, rulers of Mecca; Adj. Qurayshan; Qurayshi; a member of the tribe.

  Qurayzah A Jewish tribe that collaborated with Mecca during the Battle of Trench; the men were executed, the women and children sold into slavery.

  Qusayy ibn Kilab The founder of the tribe of Quraysh.

  Ruqayyah bint M
uhammad Daughter of Khadijah and Muhammad; married to ‘Uthman ibn‘ Affan.

  Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh A chieftain of the Aws tribe in Medina.

  Sa‘d ibn ‘Ubadah A chieftain of Khazraj tribe in Medina.

  Safiyyah bint Huyay Muhammad’s Jewish wife, married to him after the conquest of Khaybar.

  Safwan ibn al-Mu‘attal A friend of ‘A’isha; Muhammad’s Medinese opponents spread slanderous rumors about their relationship.

  Safwan ibn Umayyah One of the leading members of the opposition to Muhammad in Mecca.

  Sawdah bint Zam‘ah Wife of Muhammad; the cousin and sister-in-law of Suhayl ibn ‘Amr.

  Suhayl ibn ‘Amr Chief of the clan of Amir in Mecca; a devout pagan; a leading member of the opposition to Muhammad.

  Thalabah One of the twenty Jewish tribes of Yathrib/Medina.

  Thaqif An Arab tribe, settled in Ta’if; the allies of the Quraysh; opponents of Muhammad.

  ‘Ubaydallah ibn al-Harith An experienced Qurayshan warrior who converted to Islam.

  ‘Ubaydallah ibn Jahsh Cousin of Muhammad; a hanif who converted to Christianity.

  Umamah bint ‘Abu l-‘As The granddaughter of Muhammad; the daughter of Zaynab bint Muhammad.

  ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab The nephew of Abu Jahl; at first passionately opposed to Muhammad, but later became one of his closest companions.

  Umayyah A powerful Meccan clan of Quraysh.

  Ummayah ibn Khalaf Chief of the Meccan clan of Jumah; an inveterate opponent of Muhammad.

  Umm Habibah Daughter of Abu Sufyan; one of the émigrés to Abyssinia; married to Muhammad on her return.

  Umm Han’ bint Abi Talib Muhammad’s cousin.

  Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad Daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah; married ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan after the death of Ruqayyah.

  Umm Salamah bint Abi Umayyah One of the most sophisticated and intelligent of Muhammad’s wives.

  ‘Urwah ibn Mas‘ud A member of Thaqif; an ally of the Quraysh and an opponent of Muhammad.