by Max Hastings
Sinclair, Sir Archibald (later 1st Viscount Thurso), 10, 55, 254, 268, 561
Singapore: and Japanese advance, 217–18, 227, 234–5; strategic importance, 221; surrenders, 238–40, 244, 251
Skelton, John, 243
Skorzeny, Col. Otto, 407–8
Slessor, Air Marshal Sir John, 175
Slim, Gen. William (later Viscount), 376, 481, 504, 514, 579–80
Slovakia: uprising, 471
Smiley, David, 462
Smith, Lt.Gen. Walter Bedell, 383
Smuts, Field Marshal Jan Christian: WSC replies to, 44; relations with WSC, 193, 235, 544; depressed at stalemate, 206; and campaign in Italy, 383; on Roosevelt’s proposal on Hong Kong, 429; takes son to Cairo conference, 433; in Cairo with WSC, 436; and WSC’s confidence in Alexander, 443; and WSC’s impatience with critics, 444; on WSC’s physical decline, 449; praises WSC for delaying Overlord, 478; and Eden-Bevin discussion on maintaining coalition government, 486; and WSC’s sense of weakness beside USA, 519; and WSC’s handling of post-liberation Greek crisis, 533; on WSC at end of war, 591
Snyder, J. Buell, 200
Somaliland: campaign in, 123
Somerset, Gen. Brehon, 301
Somerville, Admiral Sir James, 69, 260
South-East Asia: campaign in, 376; see also Burma; Malaya; Singapore
Southby, Commander Sir Archibald, 241
Soviet Union: knowledge of allies’ secrets, xix, 163, 320–2; WSC embraces as ally, xix, 153–4; WSC foresees German attack on, 75; Germany invades, 103, 149–50, 152; Western aid to, 150, 158, 160, 163–7, 217, 226, 323–4, 330–1, 480; British attitudes to, 151, 154–5, 159–60, 167–8, 304, 306, 332, 346, 370, 382, 445–6, 576; non-aggression pact with Germany (1939), 151; WSC’s pre-war attitude to, 152; losses and casualties, 159, 169–70, 324, 326, 330, 346, 362, 445; secrecy and isolation, 159, 163; US attitude to, 160–1; British convoys to, 166, 251, 290, 323, 330, 352, 358, 372; German advance in, 169, 324; USA and Britain expect to be defeated, 196, 207, 228; on WSC-Roosevelt meeting at Placentia Bay, 201; agrees European frontiers with Germany, 216; and Japan’s entry into war, 216; territorial claims in eastern Europe, 244, 256, 289, 444, 567; commitment and achievements, 282, 286, 303, 306, 369–70, 378; and US-British second front, 283, 286, 290, 305–6; treaty of alliance with Britain (1942), 291–3; hostility to western allies, 331–2; attritional nature of campaign, 346, 362; dominance in defeat of Germany, 362; demands for post-war settlement, 373, 445, 517–18; massacres Polish officers at Katyn, 373; WSC warns of as future threat, 386, 388; in governance of occupied territories in eastern Europe, 388, 518; mocks West’s inadequate activities, 397; WSC’s critical view of, 424; believes Britain opposed to invasion of France, 426; partisans, 466, 472; deteriorating relations with Britain, 480; army strength, 484; refuses help to Poles in Warsaw rising, 503, 509–10, 516; East European policy, 527, 554, 556–7, 566–7; restraint over Greece, 529; demands repatriation of all Soviet subjects detained in Europe, 552; paranoia over supposed Western separate peace with Germany, 565; WSC proposes Anglo-US drive to force back in Europe, 571–6, 584
Spain: and dispute over Gibraltar, 66; stays out of war, 70; fears of joining Axis, 137; generals bribed to remain neutral, 137
Spears, Maj.Gen. Sir Edward, 41, 45, 47, 49, 56, 319
Special Boat Squadron, 404–5, 415
Special Operations Executive (SOE): effects, xvii, 452, 461, 470–3, 475; strategic contribution, xxii; Dalton heads, 75, 275, 451; WSC orders formation, 75, 451; officers betrayed and captured, 455, 458–9; opposition to, 456–7; WSC indulges, 458; in Balkans, 461–3, 468–9; casualties, 470; strength, 470; Kirkpatrick attacks, 473; in Greece, 531
Spectator (journal), 253, 304
Stalin, Josef V.: military successes, xvii, xix; as leader, 155; exasperation at British inaction, 162, 164; Beaverbrook meets, 164–5; calls for supplies and reinforcements from USA and Britain, 201; territorial ambitions in Europe, 216, 553; requests information on chemical weapons, 245; WSC informs about British bombing raids, 248; fantasises about British support for Japan, 289; demands second front, 291, 293; popularity in Britain, 304; WSC meets in Moscow (1942), 320, 322–9; and secret information from British agents, 321, 329; drinking, 327; meeting with Harriman, 329–30; denies information to Allied officers and diplomats, 331; WSC describes Cripps to, 344; WSC’s commitment to, 345; and Allied commitment to invasion of France, 358; anger at inadequacy of Western support, 362; role in German defeat, 362; WSC congatulates on Stalingrad victory, 365; WSC reports to on bombing offensive, 370, 425; criticises slow progress in Mediterranean, 372; complaint to Roosevelt about D-Day postponements, 381; WSC rebukes for criticism, 381; demands voice in control of occupied territories, 388; at Tehran conference, 426, 431–5; rejects proposed Big Three meeting in London, 426; manner, 432; jests about shooting 50,000 German officers, 433; taunts WSC at Tehran, 433; trusts Roosevelt, 435; WSC cables about Anzio landing, 440; lies over non-interference in Polish internal politics, 444–5; WSC praises in broadcast, 446; dismisses Polish Resistance fighters, 456, 509; and Yugoslav communist partisans, 467; cynicism over D-Day landings, 486–7; messages from WSC on D-Day and Italian campaign, 488; proposals on accommodation of Poles, 503; WSC flies to Moscow for bilateral talks with, 514–18; expresses hatred of Switzerland, 518; post-war policy on liberated countries, 529; non-interference in Greece, 531, 545; proposes Yalta conference, 543, 547; at Yalta conference, 548–51, 553–5; satisfaction with Yalta outcome, 556; WSC protests to about Soviet oppression in Poland, 557; and supposed Western separate peace negotiations with Germany, 565; at Potsdam conference, 584, 587–8; and Allied possession of atom bomb, 585; indulges WSC at Potsdam, 588–9; WSC’s limited influence on, 597; see also Soviet Union
Stalingrad, battle of (1942–3), 306, 324, 344, 353, 362, 365
Stark, Admiral Harold, 194
Starr, George, 55–6
Stauffenberg, Claus, Count von, 500
Stebbing, Edward, 112, 114, 150, 168, 263, 378
Stettinius, Edward, 527
Stimson, Henry: serves under Roosevelt, 184; favours aid to Britain, 185; on British exploitation of Roosevelt’s shortcomings, 232; proposes advancing D-Day date, 385; favours Marshall to command Overlord, 394; demands inquiry into Dresden bombing, 562
Stokes, Richard, 105, 562
Stokes, Thomas, 529
Strakosch, Sir Henry, 590
Strangeways, Capt. David, 5
Student, Gen. Kurt, 133–4
Stumme, Gen. Georg, 338
Suez Canal, 117
Sullivan, Mark, 593
Sulzberger, C.L., 548
Sumatra: WSC urges landing on, 387, 412, 448, 477
Sunday Express, 265
Supercharge, Operation, 339
Supreme War Council (Franco-British), 42, 45, 47, 50
Sweden, 11
Sweet-Escott, Bickham, 457
Swing, Raymond Gram, 176
Switzerland: Stalin professes hatred of, 518
Syria: campaign in, 137–8; French forced from, 580
tanks: US supplies to British in North Africa, 317
Taranto: Italian fleet attacked at, 121; seized by 1st British Airborne Division, 391
Taylor, Richard E., 65
Tedder, Air Marshal Sir Arthur: scorn for commanders in Middle East, 128; WSC proposes dismissing, 208; reluctance to express view on course of war, 308; criticises army to WSC in Egypt, 317; in Moscow, 325; criticises Aegean operation, 413; message from WSC on Leros operation, 416; WSC meets in Tunisia, 436; as Eisenhower’s deputy for Overlord, 437–8; liked by Americans, 482; WSC proposes Alexander replace as Deputy Supreme Commander, 558
Tehran conference (1943), 355, 416, 426, 431–6
Temple, Richmond, 56
Tennant, Capt. Bill, 62
Terrasson, France: Resistance reprisals, 455
Thompson, Commander Charles Ralfe (‘Tommy’), 187
Thompson, Malvina, 224
Thorne, Will, 62
; Tiger (Mediterranean convoy), 131
Tilney, Brig. Robert, 414, 416–17
Time magazine: on British weakness in 1940, 64; on WSC’s resolution, 103–4; on morale of US Army draftees, 186; on Roosevelt’s interest in authorship of WSC’s speeches, 229; on Britain’s defensive-mindedness, 295
Times, The: reports trivia, 7; on German advance in West, 8; Beveridge writes in, 238; on fall of Singapore, 240; on post-war concerns, 252; criticises WSC’s dual role as prime minister and Minister of Defence, 310; on inadequacy of arms and equipment, 310–11; on change of commanders in Middle East, 334; on WSC’s Mansion House speech after North African successes, 340–1; on WSC at Casablanca conference, 359; on miners’ strike, 399; on Dodecanese operations, 406; on fall of Kos, 411; on fall of Leros, 419
Tito, Josip Broz, 363–4, 432, 466–70, 506, 524, 580–2
Tizard, Sir Henry, 84–5
Tobruk: O’Connor attacks, 122, 124; evacuation, 138; WSC insists on holding, 148–9; Australian garrison, 149, 162; surrenders (June 1942), 297, 302–3
Togliatti, Palmiro, 506
Tojo, Hideki, 594
Tooze, Adam, 424
Torch, Operation, 296, 312–14, 324, 326, 337, 339–40
Toulon: French fleet at, 70
Tours: WSC visits Reynaud at, 48–9
Tovey, Admiral Sir John, 192, 250, 260
Tribune (journal), 287, 528
Trident conference, 355, 376
Trieste, 580–2
Tripoli: WSC in, 365–6
Trollope, Anthony, 107–8
Trott, Adam von, 499
Troy, Melville, 185
Trukhanovsky, Victor, 331
Truman, Harry S.: Roosevelt keeps uninformed, 519; WSC’s relations with, 568, 580; cable from WSC on Russia and position of Poland, 571; accepts Yalta agreements on occupation zones, 576; WSC meets at Potsdam conference, 584–5
Tulle, France, 460
Tunis: falls to British, 376
Tunisia: campaign in, 351–2, 370
Turkey: WSC hopes for entry into war, 121, 126, 424; maintains neutrality, 128; WSC visits, 363–5, 380; and WSC’s Dodecanese operation, 401–2, 420
Twain, Mark, 177
U-boats see German navy
Ulster see Northern Ireland
Ultra: intercepts enemy signals, 84–5; on Hitler’s strategy in Balkans, 129; and Hitler’s attack on Russia, 150; in Battle of Atlantic, 158; information on eastern front, 159; on escape of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, 237; on Afrika Korps supply and logistical difficulties, 336–7; operational value, 337; and Rommel’s defeat at Alamein, 339; U-boat signals interrupted, 372; on German pessimism, 403; on Leros operation, 414, 416; on persecution of Jews, 501; on effects of strategic bombing, 560
United Nations: inaugural meeting (4 May 1945), 566
United Services club, London, 260
United States of America: as key to victory, xviii; denies WSC’s request for destroyers, 15, 21; WSC’s determination to bring into war, 18, 171, 188, 190, 207; opposed to participation in European war, 25; declines Britain’s appeals for aid, 31; Halifax suggests appeal to, 38; French arms contracts transferred to Britain, 55; views of Britain, 64–5, 184, 258, 298–301, 360–1, 482; sends old weapons to Britain, 73, 172; demands payment for supplies, 86, 138, 172–3; impressed by WSC’s resistance, 103; delays entry into war, 111, 171, 184, 188–9, 200; oil production, 117; attitude to Soviet involvement in war, 160–1; sends aid to Russia, 161, 167, 226, 290; reduces aid to Britain, 170–2; buys British assets cheaply, 173; and British anti-Americanism, 174–7, 189, 214, 370–2; economic boom, 175–6; WSC’s earlier visits to, 177–8; WSC broadcasts to, 190–2; enters war after Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, 212–13; Germany and Italy declare war on, 216; gives priority to West over Japan, 220–1; liberty ships, 220; WSC addresses Congress, 222–3; arms production, 226, 368; resentment at British understimate of capabilities, 226; chiefs of staff attitude to WSC, 231; British military mission in, 232, 296; Australia seeks support from, 236; views on post-war settlement, 256; as decision-maker, 258; quality of tanks, 268, 317; advocates second front to relieve Russians, 283–4; misunderstanding of British position, 295; sends tanks and equipment to British in Libya, 297; anti-imperialsm, 300–1, 372, 540, 548; and North African landings, 313–14; wartime relations with Russia, 330; performance in North Africa, 340, 351; negotiates at Casablanca conference, 353–7; commitment to Pacific strategy, 354, 358; distaste for de Gaulle, 365, 446, 479; campaign in Pacific, 368; officers’ suspicion of British, 368; defeated at Kasserine pass, 370; troops enter Bizerta, 376; mistrust of British intentions over D-Day, 385; declining regard for WSC, 386, 393; determination to invade Europe, 393, 478–9; disfavours minor operations, 404; importance to Britain as ally, 435–6; abandons support for Mediterranean operations, 442; supports Cetniks in Yugoslavia, 468; concern over political situation in Britain (1944), 476; working relations with Britain, 482–3; recognises de Gaulle as head of provisional French government, 505, 513; and post-liberation government in Italy, 507; power compared with Britain, 519–20; support for liberated countries, 523–4; differences with Britain over post-liberation policies, 526–8; view of WSC’s post-war international policies, 527; criticism of Britain towards war’s end, 540–2, 549; demands repayment of Lend-Lease loans, 548; avoids diplomatic wrangling with Russia, 565
United States Army Air Force: attacks French railways before D-Day, 480; bombing campaign, 251; qualities, 595
United States Navy: successes in Pacific, 256
VESSELS: Augusta (cruiser), 193–4; Quincy (cruiser), 547
Unthinkable, Operation, xix, 575–7, 584
Urey, Harold, 65
Ustashi (Croat), 464
V1 flying bombs, 489–90
V2 rockets, 490, 546
Vanderkloot, Bill, 315–16
VE-Day (8 May 1945), 568
Vercors: maquis massacred, 460
Vichy France: no war with Britain, 69; forces resist Allied landings in North Africa, 340, 346; US relations with, 347; see also France
Vickers, Geoffrey, 8
Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, 386
Victor, Exercise, 123
Vienna: Russians bar British representatives, 581
Wall Street Journal, 578
Wallace, Henry, 312
Waller, Lt.Col. R.P., 133
Walpole, Horace, 69
Walsh, David, 31
war cabinet: composition and meetings, 140
Ward, Maj.Gen. Orlando, 357
Wardlaw-Milne, Sir John, 281, 302, 308, 310
Warsaw rising (August 1944), 472–3, 503, 509, 513, 516
Washington, DC: WSC and party visit (December 1941), 216, 219–28, 233; WSC visits for Trident conference (May 1943), 375, 377–90; WSC stays in (September 1943), 392
Washington Post, 530–1
Waugh, Evelyn, 34
Wavell, Gen. Sir Archibald (later Earl): WSC sends tanks and equipment to, 94, 118; as Middle East commander, 117; character and qualities, 118; orders evacuation of Somaliland, 118; poor relations with WSC, 118, 127–8, 138, 343; questions British intervention in Greece, 119–20, 129–30; plans offensive in Western Desert, 120–1, 123; successes in East Africa, 123; changes mind on Greek campaign, 126–7, 132, 136; and actions in Syria and Iraq, 137; dismissed, 139; as Anglo-American supreme commander in Far East, 236; and fall of Singapore, 239; Cadogan criticises, 259; accompanies WSC to Moscow, 315, 325–7
Wedemeyer, Maj. Albert, 186, 360
Weichs, Field Marshal Maximilian von, 466
Welles, Sumner, 47
Wells, H.G., 528
Wesson, Maj.Gen. Charles (‘Bull’), 186
Weygand, Gen. Maxime, 24, 40, 46, 49, 52, 55
Wheeler, Burton K., 161
Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John, 500
White, Harry Dexter, 321
Wigram, Eva (Lady Anderson), 274
Wigram, Ralph, 274
Williams, Brig. Bill, 337
Willkie, Wendell, 184, 19
4, 300, 316
Wilson, Charles see Moran, 1st Baron
Wilson, Woodrow, 32
Winant, John G. (‘Gil’), 160, 178, 183, 185, 200, 212, 313
Windsor, Edward, Duke of, 82, 245
Wingate, Brig. Orde, 387–8, 429
Wintringham, Tom, 265
Wood, (Sir) Kingsley: as chancellor of exchequer, 10, 50, 86, 138; in war cabinet, 140; and Lend-Lease terms, 181; death, 396
Woodhouse, Col. Christopher Montague, 462–3, 465
Woodring, Harry, 31
Woolton, Frederick James Marquis, 1st Earl of, 202, 274, 423, 476, 498
Wrigley, Chris, xviii
Wrong, Humphrey Hume, 336
Wulff, Gen. Karl, 565
Yalta conference (1945), 543, 547–57
Yates, Commander Andrew, 304
Yeo-Thomas, Wing Commander Edmund (‘White Rabbit’), 458
Yugoslavia: Germans invade and occupy, 124, 128–30; German forces in, 363–4; Resistance movement and partisans, 428, 432, 451, 458, 461, 466–9, 474; Allied arms supplies to, 467; British missions to, 467–9; US supports Cetniks in, 468; post-war settlement, 515; communists seize control after liberation, 524; partisans withdraw from Trieste, 580
Zeppelin, Operation (deception), 466
Zervas, Napoleon, 463
Zhukov, Marshal Georgy, 362, 556, 565, 572–3, 585, 587
Zog, King of Albania, 515, 543
Zorab, Capt. Phillip, 532
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My first debt is to Richard Johnson of HarperCollins in London and Ash Green at Knopf in New York, for showing the confidence to commission this work, when less optimistic souls might have judged that there was no more usefully to be said about Winston Churchill. Robert Lacey of HarperCollins is a superb editor, who contributes immeasurably to the coherence of all my books, likewise Andrew Miller at Knopf. Michael Sissons and Peter Matson have been my agents for longer than they care to remember, and have always been wonderfully supportive.
Dr Lyuba Vinogradova has been responsible for research and translation in Moscow on this book, as for my earlier Armageddon and Nemesis. It has today become much more difficult to access Soviet archives than it was a decade ago, but Lyuba achieved a remarkable amount by scouring published document collections. I am especially grateful to her for translating hundreds of pages of material concerning Churchill and the Allies from the wartime Soviet press.