Three Major Plays

by Lope de Vega

45 four thousand maravedis: it is difficult to know which kind of coin is alluded to here. There were in fact 'maravedis' of gold, silver, and bronze, all of different value and also fluctuating in their value from time to time. The word itself is of Arabic origin and yet another example of the profound impact on Spanish life of Muslim influence over eight centuries.

  S.D. Enter the Master: the following scene takes place away from Fuente Ovejuna. The happiness of Laurencia and Frondoso coincides, significantly, with the triumph of the Catholic Kings, to whom the villagers are loyal, and with the defeat of Rodrigo Téllez Girón and his followers, all of them disloyal to Fernando and Isabel.

  the flag of Calatrava: the flag would at this point be on stage.

  46 the highest towers: at this point in the action the flags or banners of Castile could well have been displayed in the balconies or gallery high above the back of the stage.

  S.D. Magistrate, and Juan Rojo: the magistrate mentioned here is a second magistrate, the other being Esteban. Juan Rojo is not included in Lope's stage-direction, even though he is involved in this scene. The location is probably the square of Fuente Ovejuna.

  47 pumped: this would have been done by means of a hollow tube of wood or metal which was attached to a small bag of leather.

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  47 Such dreadful poetry: Mengo is here the literary critic and in this respect voices Lope's own opinion on bad poets. Controversies of this kind were, of course, quite common at the time, frequently involving those who advocated a relatively clear and uncomplicated style and those whose preference was for a more ornate and complex kind of poetry.

  48 as one!: the harmony between Frondoso and Laurencia anticipates that between Fernando and Isabel, emphasized in the song in Act Three (see 3.338). Consequently, it links the main and the sub-plot and also draws attention to the disruptive influence of the Commander both in the lives of Laurencia and Frondoso and in the political events concerning the Catholic Kings.

  The village-girl: in the Spanish original the song is characterized by assonance in alternate lines:

  Al val de Fuente Ovejuna

  la niña en cabello baja;

  el caballero la sigue

  de la Cruz de Calatrava. . .

  In the translation I have opted for rhyme or near rhyme in alternate lines.

  49 S.D. Enter the Commander: a wonderfully dramatic moment. In the song the village-girl is not named, nor is the knight who lusts after her. The sudden appearance of Fernán Gómez at the very end of the song therefore transforms the words of the song into a pressing and ominous reality.

  50 His father: a rather strange line in the sense that there is no reference anywhere in the play to Frondoso's father being a judge (though he may, of course, be one).

  His crime: Fernán GÓmez attempts to conceal his personal motives in taking revenge against Frondoso by pretending that the latter's offence has been against him as a representative of the Order of Calatrava, and therefore against the Grand Master himself.

  51 virtuous nature: the implication is that those of noble birth should also possess nobility of soul and spirit. There is no sarcasm in Esteban's remark. He is simply expressing his genuine expectation of a man in the Commander's position of responsibility towards his vassals.

  disorder: one of the first tasks which confronted Isabel when she became ruler of Castile was the government of the three Orders of Calatrava, Alcántara, and Santiago. By the fifteenth century the orders had become immensely powerful and a threat to the monarchy itself, while rivalry for the Grand Masterships was a constant source of strife among the nobility. By 1499 Fernando, husband of Isabel, had become Grand Master of all three orders, and in 1523 they were incorporated into the crown of Castile by papal edict.

  crosses: the reference to the cross, which is of course emblazoned on the

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  Commander's cloak, is another reminder of the Christian virtues which he should embody, and a striking contrast to his subsequent abuse of Esteban's office of magistrate.

  51 overlord: Esteban recognizes his responsibilities to his overlord in a way which the Commander does not in relation to his vassals. He is therefore prepared to accept the ill-treatment of the Commander in the expectation that God will ultimately see justice done.

  52 kettle-drums: the kind of drum described here -- in Spanish atabal -- was semi-spherical in shape. Two such drums side by side, therefore, suggest to Mengo the two cheeks of his backside, on which a much harsher rhythm has been played.

  Act Three

  53 S.D. Enter Esteban . . .: the meeting which opens the Act evidently takes place in the village council chamber behind closed doors, hence Juan Rojo's subsequent remark 'This meeting must be secret'.

  S.D. Alderman: this is the same alderman mentioned at the beginning of Act Two, whose name is Cuadrado.

  54 Córdoba: some 55 miles from Fuente Ovejuna. See note to 7.

  55 Take arms against our overlord?: to rebel against the Commander would be to overturn the natural order of things, as is the case in Shakespeare's Macbeth when Macbeth murders his overlord, Duncan the King.

  56 You are responsible: the father, as head of the family, was responsible for its honour and reputation. When a daughter married, that responsibility passed, of course, to her husband. Laurencia's abduction by the Commander was not only an affront to the family name but was also something that would become a source of gossip and speculation as to whether she had been raped and therefore further 'dishonoured'.

  precious stone: honour was regarded as precious, something to be guarded with one's life, for without honour life itself became meaningless. In his play Peribáez, 3.2614-65, honour is also presented by Lope as something essentially fragile, comparable to a reed or cane which may be easily broken.

  The name of our town: the original name of the town was, in fact, Fuente Abejuna, 'well of the bees', but over a period of time seems to have changed to Fuente Ovejuna, the 'sheep-well'.

  Not tigresses!: in Classical literature tigresses had the reputation of pursuing the hunter who had stolen their cubs and of sacrificing their lives in the attempt to rescue them. See also Punishment Without Revenge, 3.83.

  distaffs: a distaff is a rotating vertical staff which holds the skein of wool in hand-spinning, a task traditionally undertaken by women and therefore symbolic of female activity. Laurencia suggests that the men of the village are more suited to the passive domestic tasks of women.

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  57 Amazons: a legendary race of female warriors in ancient Scythia. The River Amazon is believed to have acquired its name when early Spanish explorers discovered that the women of the tribes who lived on its banks fought with the ferocity of men.

  59 No Cid or Rodamonte: El Cid (the Arabic Sayyidi means 'my lord') was the name given to Rodrigo Díaz de Bivar, who was born in the city of Burgos in 1030 and died in Valencia in 1099. He was, perhaps, the exemplary Christian warrior during the Reconquest, one of his greatest feats being the capture of Valencia from the Moors. The exploits of El Cid are the subject of the anonymous popular epic poem Poema de mío Cid(Poem of my Cid), which was probably written in the middle of the twelfth century. Rodamonte, King of Sarza, also noted for his bravery, is a character in Ariosto's Orlando furioso ( 1516).

  S.D. Enter Frondoso: the action moves from the council chamber of Fuente Ovejuna to the house of the Commander, evidently a substantial property, for it has battlements from which Frondoso is to be hanged. The house itself would not have been represented on stage any more than the council chamber, but would have to be imagined by the audience. the residence: presumably the house is not the personal property of Fernán Gómez but belongs to the Order of Calatrava.

  61 S.D. The women enter: the location is now outside Fernán Gómez's house as the women arrive.

  62 Slash his face!: see 2.161-2, where Flores to have given Frondoso a present, 'from ear ¶ To ear'. Although there is no other reference in the text to Frondoso's having received such an injury, his an
ger here points to a desire to inflict a similar injury on Ortuño.

  63 Our King!: the main and sub-plots are cleverly linked here, for the villagers' victory over their enemy, the Commander, immediately becomes, with the entrance of Fernando and Isabel, an account of their triumph over their foe, the supporters of the King of Portugal.

  64 S.D. Enter Flores: we have been told earlier (3.29-30) that Fernando and Isabel will be in Córdoba, some 55 miles from Fuente Ovejuna. Flores has therefore travelled that distance in spite of his wounds and, it seems, in the space of a day and a night (see 3.311-12).

  The ruler of Castile: Fernando of Aragon married Isabel of Castile in 1469, but she did not succeed to the throne of Castile until 1479, three years after the Fuente Ovejuna uprising.

  these terrible Events: much of the detail of Flores's account corresponds to the description of events set out in Francisco de Rades's Chrónica . . . (See the Introduction, p. xiii), though Flores, of course, places the blame entirely on the villagers and presents the Commander as an innocent victim.

  65 orders to investigate: although he is shocked by Flores's account and anxious to punish wrongdoing, Fernando does not allow his emotions to

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  rule his head. Lope presents him as an exemplary king, intent on discovering the truth before taking action. In this respect Fernando is reminiscent of King Enrique in Peribñez, who, though initially incensed by the account of the death of a nobleman at the hands of a peasant, in the end makes a fair and just judgement.

  65 S.D. fixed on a lance: the Chrónica makes no reference to this.

  Long life to King Fernando: this song in praise of the Catholic Kings echoes the earlier song in celebration of the wedding of Laurencia and Frondoso. To that extent it creates a link between the two couples.

  66 Saint Michael: the Archangel Michael, who, after death, led righteous souls into the presence of God.

  67 a roasting: a reference to the practice of smearing hot bacon-fat on the open wounds of individuals who had been flogged, in particular Jews and negroes.

  outside the Council Chamber: as the head of Fernán Gómez is taken down, so the royal coat of arms is raised, pointing, as Frondoso observes (3.381), to the 'dawn of our new day!' and the end of the terror inflicted on the villagers by their overlord.

  bright as any sun: just as Fernán Gómez's behaviour has been described in images associated with darkness and predatory birds and animals, so the rule of the Catholic Kings is presented in terms of light and illumination. As the monarch occupied the supreme position in the hierarchy of human beings, so the sun was supreme amongst the planets.

  68 Fuente Ovejuna did it!: in de Rades's Chrónica the villagers are said to have called out 'Fuente Ovejuna'. The phrase 'Fuente Ovejuna did it!' ('Fuente Ovejuna lo hizo') is described by Sebastián de Covarrubias Horozco in his Tesoro de la lengua castellana of 1611 as having become common usage when the intention was to indicate communal rather than individual guilt in a particular crime.

  to be tortured: the implication is clearly that torture was an automatic part of any interrogation by the authorities.

  69 The screw: either a reference to the rack, on which the prisoner would be stretched out and screws tightened in order to extend further his or her limbs until the pain led to a confession, or to thumbscrews.

  S.D. the Alderman: see note to 53.

  you could be put to death: messengers who are the bringers of bad news traditionally incurred the wrath of those to whom the news was delivered.

  70 Allegiance: the crown had given Fuente Ovejuna to Rodrigo Téllez Girón's father in 1460, but five years later had placed it under the jurisdiction of Córdoba.

  Control my rage: despite the fact that he has been persuaded to attack Ciudad Real, the Master, though young and impetuous, shows signs of growing prudence, in contrast to Fernán Gómez.

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  71 S.D. Enter Frondoso: sufficient time has passed since the arrival of the judge -- see 3.409 -- for him to have tortured many of the villagers. Hence Laurencia's concern for Frondoso.

  73 Fuente Ovejuna! Our little town: the name spoken by Mendo in the original is 'Fuente Ovejunica', the diminutive form, which cannot be translated into English in the same way. The Spanish diminutive form is used not only to describe smallness but also as a term of endearment.

  74 Lemon curd: in Spanish diacitrón, a kind of confection made of citrus.

  75 A joy to see you once again!: the expression of love between Laurencia and Frondoso immediately gives way to a display of affection -- more formal, of course -- between Fernando and Isabel, once more creating a link between the two couples in terms of the harmony of their relationship.

  76 Granada: the events of the play take place in 1476. By 1489 the Christians had already captured from the Moors all the important fortresses and cities of the kingdom of Granada, until only the city of Granada itself remained in their power. It eventually capitulated under siege and the Catholic Kings entered it in 1492. By this time Rodrigo Téllez Girón was dead, killed near Loja in a campaign against the Moors.

  77 The lovely Esther, the mighty Xerxes: Xerxes was King of Persia from 485 to 465 BC, and a noted warrior. Esther was the favourite wife of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, in the sixth century BC, noted for her compassion. Her story is told in the Book of Esther. Lope play, The Beautiful Esther (La bella Ester) was written in 1610.

  78 Saint Anthony: Saint Anthony of Padua is the patron saint of lovers and marriage, appropriately invoked by Laurencia.

  villains: Fernando (3.591) has alluded to the villagers as 'assassins'. Although the reaction of the Catholic Kings can hardly be described as regarding the peasants as innocent until proved guilty, Lope is perhaps over-emphasizing it in order to show subsequently how they are willing to listen to reason.

  79 Nero: Emperor of Rome from AD 54 to 68, and noted for his cruelty.

  a serious crime: Fernando pardons the villagers because there is insufficient evidence to prove their guilt, but he makes them well aware of the seriousness of their crime and himself takes temporary control of Fuente Ovejuna. The ending of the play represents, therefore, not the triumph of the rebels but the restitution of the authority of the crown and upholds the status quo. Certain modern productions, particularly in the former Soviet Union, have represented the actions of the villagers as the overthrow of tyranny and therefore changed the ending. The great Spanish dramatist Lorca, directing the play with his student company 'La Barraca' in the 1930s, also emphasized its revolutionary character by presenting the uprising of the villagers against the Commander in the context of the oppression of twentieth-century Spanish peasants by a tyrannical landowner.

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  79 my friends: Golden Age plays frequently end with one of the characters addressing the audience.

  THE KNIGHT FROM OLMEDO

  [A Tragicomedy]: on this point, see the Introduction.

  Act One

  83 correspondence: as in the case of Laurencia and Frondoso in Fuente Ovejuna, there may be, Alonso thinks, a natural correspondence between himself and Inés which is part of the underlying, perfect harmony of creation.

  blind Cupid: Cupid was often depicted as blindfolded and equipped with two kinds of arrow: one of gold which awakened love; the other of lead which inspired disdain.

  84 Hippocrates: (c. 460-357 BC), Greek physician, generally regarded as the father of medicine.

  caresses: in the original caricias, though in seventeenth-century Spanish this also had the more general meaning of flattery.

  Bewitched: the Spanish word aojado suggests someone who is the victim of the evil eye. If Alonso is truly bewitched, it suggests that his life is ruled by forces which he cannot control, though, given Fabia's interest in spells, the word is one which she would use quite commonly and may signify little.

  85 feria: the 'fair' mentioned here might be the weekly market, but since Inés, a young woman of noble birth, is dressed in peasant costume, the occasion is more likely to
be a carnival.

  Medina:Medina del Campo is to be found in the province of Valladolid, north-west of Madrid.

  it was afternoon: much of the ballad or romance which follows appeared in the Primavera y flor de los mejores romances, a collection of the best Spanish ballads which was published in Madrid in 1621. This version, intended to be sung, seems to have been taken from Lope's play. The Spanish ballad is characterized by assonance in the final word of alternate lines, which in Lope's original consists of an i-a pattern: ' Medina', 'amanecía', 'liga' . . . I have not attempted to reproduce this in the translation.

  ruffles: a collar of silk or fine linen which was attached to the dress and which, at the back, fell over the shoulders and, at the front, half-covered the breast.

  86 Coral and pearl: an elaboration on the kind of imagery to be found in the love poetry of the Italian poet Petrarch ( 1304-74) and his followers, in which the lady's eyes are brighter than the sun, her skin whiter than snow, her teeth more beautiful than pearls.

  The slippers: in Spanish, chinelas, which are soft shoes without a heel.

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  86 imprisoned in their ribbons: the ribbons and laces of women's shoes as a trap for men's souls is a common image in Lope's work. It is a variation on the earlier reference to Inés's hair as a trap (see 1.66).

  deaf. it was traditionally thought that the asp or adder was deaf, as in, for example, Psalm 58: 4, 'they are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear . . .'.

  Olmedo: the town is about 10 miles from Medina.

  unicorn: according to legend, the inhabitants of the desert regions of Africa feared that their pools of water might be contaminated by snakes and other poisonous creatures. They would therefore wait for the arrival of the unicorn whose horn, they believed, purified the water.