The Nine Cloud Dream

by Kim Man-jung

  11. Since Kim was writing Kuunmong in the second half of the seventeenth century, Korea was still resonating with the aftermath of the Hideyoshi invasions, which ended in 1598 and were opposed partially by the uisa, “righteous monks,” who participated in the war. The leader of the uisa was Seosan Hyujeong (1520–1604), a Korean Seon (Zen) master whose writings were very much influenced by Weonhyo and Jinul and also Gihwa (1376–1433), who had defended Buddhism against Confucian oppression.

  12. The grid shape of this diagram, like the # symbol, is also reminiscent of 井, the ancient Chinese pictogram representing the well, a reference to the I Ching’s hexagram 48, which happens to be about the enduring underlying structures that govern proper society and relationships.

  13. Dukkha (Sanskrit: दुःख) literally translates as “bad space” and refers to the fact that a wheel will not spin properly when its axle hole is off center. The Chinese character for dukkha is 苦 (Korean pronunciation: go), which translates as “suffering.” The Korean reading of the Chinese character can also be “bitter.”

  14. There is quite a lot of neuroscientific research being done in relation to Buddhist meditation at institutions like the University of Michigan, the University of California, Davis, and the University of Wisconsin. Even the Dalai Lama has taken to calling Buddhism “the science of mind.” In popular literature, see Robert Wright’s Why Buddhism Is True: The Science and Philosophy of Meditation and Enlightenment (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017) and Rick Hanson’s Buddha’s Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 2009). For a description of the neuroscience that explains the phenomenology of Buddhism, see B. Alan Wallace’s Contemplative Science: Where Buddhism and Neuroscience Converge (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007) and Tor Nørretranders’s The User Illusion: Cutting Consciousness Down to Size (New York: Penguin Books, 1997).

  15. Like those works, Kuunmong participates in an old tradition, found throughout the world and through time—from prehistoric Australia to Renaissance Italy—of stories about the intersection of reality and dream. For example, the Dreamtime of the Aboriginal people is a reality that precedes and follows the one we live in, simultaneously paralleling it, and its stories offer insight into our mundane lives in this reality even while they provide a concrete historical record of the past. In European literature, works like the strange Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (The Dream of Poliphilus, 1499) by Francesco Colonna, in the tradition of romance despite its proto-surrealist use of dream narrative, also act like parables or fables whose lessons we may apply to our current lives. Kuunmong performs similar functions in its interweaving of mythology and folktales with a narrative that dramatizes the illusion of time and the interpenetration of reality and dream (for its main character) and the interpenetration of reality and the imaginary world of a novel (for its reader).

  A NOTE ON THE TRANSLATION

  1. The 1974 edition was the first part of Virtuous Women: Three Classic Korean Novels (A Nine Cloud Dream, Queen Inhyŭn, Chun-hyang). https://archive.org/details/KLTI14_201701.

  2. See A Korean Classic: The Nine Cloud Dream, Korean Folklore and Classics, Vol. 5 (Seoul: Ewha Women’s University, n.d. [1973]).

  3. To this distinguished company, I should add Kevin O’Rourke and Brother Anthony of Taizé, who are still translating Korean literature today and have been instrumental in educating and mentoring new generations of translators.

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  1. Byong-Cook Kim’s Kim Man Jung’s The Cloud Dream of the Nine: A Modern Korean Translation with a Critical Essay (Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 2007). Kim’s book is based on the four-volume edition of Kuunmong, a manuscript version in Middle Korean, held in the Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies at Seoul National University.

  CHAPTER 1.

  The Reincarnation of Hsing-chen

  1. From southernmost to northernmost, these mountains extend from current Shanghai Province all the way toward Beijing. They are collectively known as Wuyue (五嶽), usually translated as the “Five Great Mountains,” which are associated with the Heavenly Emperor and have been the destination of pilgrimages since ancient times. Their positions correspond to the five directions of Chinese cosmology (north, south, east, west, and center). Imperial China considered itself to be the center of the world, with the seat of the emperor corresponding to the mirroring of Heaven on Earth.

  2. Yu the Great 大禹 (c. 2200–2100 BCE) is a semimythic figure who introduced flood control in prehistoric China. There are actually no records documenting him until at least a thousand years later, and so he is generally regarded, with Yao and Shun, as one of the semimythic great “Sage Kings” of antiquity.

  3. 秦始皇, Qin Shi Huang in Pinyin—his name means “the First Emperor of Qin,” and he was the first great historical emperor of a unified China. His reign was actually quite short, from 220 to 210 BCE, but his influence on all of Chinese history was profound.During his reign he standardized units of measure and the writing system. He also began building what was eventually to become the Great Wall.

  4. A mortal could become immortal by practicing the esoteric arts of Taoist alchemy, a diverse tradition that usually incorporated breathing exercises, meditation, special diets, and the use of medicinal and sometimes hallucinogenic plants.

  5. The Tang dynasty, which lasted from 618 to 907, is generally considered the golden age of Chinese culture when it comes to literature and the arts. In the Korean literature of Kim Man-jung’s era, the Tang dynasty setting was a historical fantasy backdrop, but it was also the political ideal emulated by the Korean kings. Thematically, this setting for Kuunmong may have additional significance because the Tang dynasty was founded by the Li (李) family. Li also happened to be the surname of the Yi dynasty (the dynastic family of Joseon Korea). Further, Tang was also briefly interrupted when Empress Wu seized control and declared a second Zhou dynasty, which lasted only fifteen years (690–705). Empress Wu (Wu Zetian) was a concubine who became “empress consort” after she married the son of her dead husband, Emperor Taizong. There is a cautionary message to King Sukjong of Joseon, a Yi (李) who elevated his own concubine, Jang, to the position of “queen consort.” During Empress Wu’s reign, China also invaded the Korean peninsula and caused chaos among the Korean kingdoms.

  6. One of the central scriptures (sutras) of Buddhism, said to “cut through illusion like a diamond.” In Sanskrit, the title is Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, which is loosely translated as “The Diamond Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom.” Some of the central ideas in the sutra include nonattachment and nonabiding (which means avoiding attachment to mental constructs in one’s daily life). In Chinese, it is 金剛般若波羅蜜多經, condensed to 金剛般, Geumgang gyeong 금강경 in Korean. This sutra is chanted regularly at nearly all Korean Seon (Zen) temples to this day.

  7. Liuguan 六觀(육관)—a reference to the six sense organs or faculties mentioned in The Diamond Sutra. These correspond to the five senses and their sense objects (eye/vision, ear/sound, nose/smell, tongue/taste, body/touch) and the sixth, which in Buddhism is the mind and its corresponding mind objects (thoughts, emotions, etc.). The Diamond Sutra also lists the “six requirements” for those who would read or teach it (belief, hearing, time, host, place, and audience). Master Liu-kuan has both of these and also exhibits the “six perfections” of Mahayana Buddhism (generosity, moral virtue, patience, diligence, contemplation, and wisdom).

  8. Xingzhen 性眞 (성진)—translates as “Original True Nature,” but the first character can also be read as “sex” or “gender.” Allegorically, this makes Hsing-chen represent the potential for carnal desire. He is a kind of raw material for returning to original innocence, but also for working out the urges of sex and gender.

  9. A reference to the canonical literature of Chinese Buddhism. In the context of Kuunmong this would be the Tripitaka, or the “Three
Baskets,” which refers to the vinaya (texts regarding the rules and regulations of the monastic life), the sutras (texts of the Buddha’s sermons and teachings), and the abhidharma (secondary discourses on the sutras). The Tripitaka Koreana, the oldest and most complete text of the Tripitaka in Chinese, was carved onto some eighty thousand woodblocks during the thirteenth century during the Mongol invasions of Korea. It was an act of devotion performed by the Goryeo kings, in hopes that it would help Korea expel the Mongols.

  10. There are four Dragon Kings (龍王) in Chinese folk culture, each associated with one of the four cardinal points, the four major bodies of water (each a sea named for a cardinal point), and the four seasons (east/blue/spring, south/red/summer, west/white/fall, and north/black/winter). The Dragon Kings are parallel to the figure of Poseidon in Western mythology, and they are ruled only by the Jade Emperor of Heaven; they are deities associated with water, every significant body of water being associated with a resident dragon or serpent (even today in Korean folklore). The Dragon King in Kuunmong is the one who lives in Lake Dongting (meaning “Grotto Court”), which is said to have giant caverns with passages leading to every part of China.

  11. In Chinese folk culture, eight fairies are associated with the “Eight Immortals”—humans who have achieved immortality through esoteric Taoist practices. They are folk heroes, and only one of them is female. Here, the literal translation would be “eight immortal women” (八仙女). 仙女 itself is usually translated as “fairy,” and in Korean folk culture, they are associated with the supernatural women who live in the court of the Jade Emperor in the Heavenly Kingdom. The Chinese character for “fairy” (仙) is made up of “mountain” (山) and “person” (人).

  12. Also known as The Classic of Rites (Liji, 禮記), one of the Five Classics of the Confucian canon. The Book of Rites is a collection of texts regarding the proper performance of rituals, rules for administration, and instructions for proper etiquette. It also includes the teachings of Confucius and biographical details.

  13. The twenty-eighth and last of the Indian patriarchs of Buddhism. He is the one who brought Chan (Zen) Buddhism from India to China. The fairies are implicitly comparing him to Master Liu-kuan, who also came from the west to bring Buddhism to China.

  14. Similar to the rosary used by Catholics, the mala is used by Buddhists for keeping count of prayers or mantras. One type of traditional mala (favored by Tibetan Buddhists) has 108 beads.

  15. Buddhism has two major branches, known as Mahayana (the “Great Vehicle”) and Theravada (the “School of the Elders”; also known, sometimes pejoratively, as Hinayana, the “Lesser Vehicle”). Theravada Buddhism is the more conservative and older branch, and the goal of a practitioner is to become an arhat, achieving enlightenment for the self. In Theravada Buddhism, there is only one Buddha, who is the historic Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha is one of many Buddhas who stretch both backward and forward in time. The goal of Mahayana is to become a bodhisattva, a being who reaches the verge of enlightenment but then remains in the world to help all other sentient beings achieve enlightenment first before entering Nirvana. East Asian Buddhism is primarily Mahayana while South and Southeast Asian Buddhism is primarily Theravada. Tibetan Buddhism, a special path that claims enlightenment can be reached in this single lifetime, is called Vajrayana (the “Adamantine Vehicle”) and is a subbranch of Mahayana.

  16. In Mahayana Buddhism, Gautama Buddha is only the fourth of a thousand Buddhas who will appear in this world to teach the dharma and compassion.

  17. It was a common practice in both Tang China and Joseon Korea for families to dedicate one of their sons to the temple. In many cases, boys were “given” to a temple by poor parents who could not afford to raise them.

  18. These are the figures who fetch the souls of the dead and bring them to the Buddhist Underworld.

  19. King Yama (閻魔大王, “Great King Yama,” usually called Yeomra in Korean), though based on the Hindu deity, is somewhat different. He is the ruler of the Underworld and the judge of those brought there after the end of their incarnation on Earth. In Buddhist mythology, he oversees the Ten Kings of Hell.

  20. Shakyamuni means “Sage of the Shakyas,” and is a reference to the historic Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama of the Shakya clan. In some versions of the story, Ananda (who is the Buddha’s cousin) only enters the house of prostitution during his begging rounds and the Buddha later uses Ananda’s near lapse of chastity as a moral lesson.

  21. His full name is Bodhisattva King Ksitigarbha of the Great Vow (大願地藏菩薩, Jijang Bosal in Korean). Ksitigarbha vowed to teach all beings in the six worlds during the time between the Shakyamuni Buddha (the historic Buddha) and the Maitreya (the next Buddha in this world). His vow included the promise not to enter Nirvana until all the hells are emptied, which is why he is also known as the Bodhisattva of the Hell Beings.

  22. In Buddhism, one is continuously born and reborn in the cycle of samsara because of karma. One is born with the karma one has accrued in a previous lifetime due to misdeeds, and one must strive to get rid of that burden. When one’s karma is finally eliminated, one achieves enlightenment and attains nirvana, which is to leave the cycle of samsara. Although there is technically no good karma, in popular Buddhism, the idea of working off one’s karma operates much like the Western concept of changing one’s fate.

  23. Huainan (淮南) means “Lands South of the Huai River,” placing it not far from contemporary Shanghai. During the Tang dynasty, it was a state (also known as Wu), but Huainan is currently the name of an industrial city in Anhui Province.

  24. A Chinese li is a traditional unit of measure that has varied somewhat through history. It is approximately a third of a mile, or around five hundred meters.

  25. In Chinese, this is junzi (君子), or literally “lord’s son,” somewhat parallel to the Western notion of a gentleman. In Confucianism, the junzi is humble, loyal, disciplined, humane, and lives in poverty. He is second only to the ideal of the sage. The opposite of the junzi is the xiaoren (小人), the “small” or “petty” person.

  26. In Taoist mythology this is the paradisical mountain on the mysterious island on which the Eight Immortals are said to live. The first great emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, is said to have sent out several expeditions to find this island and accidentally discovered the Korean peninsula in the process.

  CHAPTER 2.

  The Young Scholar

  1. 潘岳 (247–300), a famous Jin dynasty poet known for his good looks, also known as Pan An (which is still a Chinese label for a man who is especially handsome).

  2. A reference to Sun Tzu’s The Art of War (sixth century BCE), which in chapter 10 (on terrain) mentions the six types of tactical ground positions. The three practicalities are distance, dangers, and obstacles. Sun Bin and Wu Qi were both famous military strategists, and Sun Bin, according to some sources, is said to be a descendant of Sun Tzu.

  3. Known as Xi’an today, Chang’an (長安) was the ancient capital of ten Chinese dynasties before the capital was moved to Beijing. The famous Terra-Cotta Army of Qin Shi Huang, the first great emperor, is buried nearby in his mausoleum. During the time Kuumong takes place, Chang’an was a walled city, and its walls still stand today. The area is surrounded by pyramids, and the center of the rectangular city was considered the center of the Chinese universe.

  4. Chu (楚) was the name of a Zhou dynasty state (1030–223 BCE). It covered a large area, including the setting of Kuunmong, and Shao-yu is alluding to it to suggest how special this particular willow grove happens to be.

  5. This means she is of marriageable age and not a child any longer.

  6. An allusion to one of the most popular romance tales in China. Cho Wen-chün was a widow who eloped with Szu-ma Hsiang-ju (d. 117 BCE), seduced by his zither playing. She was cast out by her father and ended up running a wine shop, her new husband entertaining g
uests with his musical ability. (His reputation as a poet eventually got him appointed to a high office because the emperor Han Wudi was so impressed by his abilities.)

  7. Polygamy was an accepted practice both in Tang China and in Joseon Korea, but powerful men usually had multiple concubines and only one official wife. The Chinese emperors often had scores or even hundreds of concubines, reserving their official succession to the sons borne by their official wife or wives.

  8. Wang Wei (699–759) and Li Po (Li Bai, also Li Taibai, 701–762) were two of the greatest poets of the Tang dynasty. Wang Wei was also an accomplished artist and intellectual, a Buddhist who retired, after being involved in great political turmoil during the An-shi rebellion, to live in semiseclusion. Li Po, on the other hand, was a flamboyant Taoist legendary for his drunken excesses, an accomplished swordsman, and an excellent calligrapher. Li Po was banished by the emperor for his outspoken excesses, and two of the best poems by Tu Fu (Dufu), another great Tang poet and dear friend of Li Po, are both called “Dreaming of Li Po.” Li Po is probably the best known of the Tang poets in the West because of Ezra Pound’s translations of his poems (attributed to the Japanese rendition of his name, Rihaku) in Cathay, published in 1915.

  9. Most likely a reference to Qiu Shiliang (仇士良), who died in 843. He was a eunuch who became very powerful during the reign of Emperor Xianzong of Tang after helping him with his bid to power. This is a curious allusion, because there was also a general named Cho Shiliang during the Tang dynasty who was a Buddhist and was known for being friendly to foreign monks.