First Bite: How We Learn to Eat
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xvi get us hooked: Moss 2014.
xvii men joining them: Hoek and Hoeken 2003.
xvii “preoccupied” with weight: Rozin et al. 2003.
xviii demon was sugar: Lustig et al. 2012; Lustig 2014; Pollan 2008; Walsh 2013.
xviii advised to give up: Teicholz 2014.
xix on average, the same: Nestle et al. 1998, S51; Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1994; Stephen and Wald 1990.
xix low-fat route or a low-carb one: Katz and Meller 2014.
xix “to swallow it”: Katz 2014.
xix compared to other foods: Walsh 2013.
xx described as “new”: Köster and Mojet 2007.
xx “Mostly plants”: Pollan 2008.
xx plus zinc and iron: Garcia et al. 2009.
xx than the general population: Wilkinson et al. 2014.
xxi “at will”: Hare 2010.
xxi specific foods is learned: Wise 2006.
xxii “wanting and intake”: Drewnowksi et al. 2012.
xxiii normal life-span: Lustig et al. 2012.
xxiv post-ingestive conditioning: Leigh Gibson 2001.
xxiv brain with motivation: Ibid.; Wise 2006.
xxiv anticipate the reward: Wise 2006.
xxiv 33,xxvi learning experiences with food: Leigh Gibson 2001.
xxv sense of festal joy: Cornwell and McAlister 2011.
xxvi when we are twenty: Unusan 2006.
xxvii visits a year in the United States: “Constipation,” Johns Hopkins Medicine, Health Library, http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/conditions/digestive_disorders/constipation_85,P00363/, accessed November 2014.
xxvii pain to pleasure: Rozin and Schiller 1980.
xxviii diminishing returns: Baumeister et al. 1998.
xxix yogurt to their own: Köster et al. 2001.
xxx “through experience”: Köster ٢٠٠٩.
xxxi 80 percent of supermarket foods: That Sugar Film, directed by Damon Gameau, produced by Madman Production Company, 2015.
xxxi separately from their main course: Meiselman 2006, 183–184.
Chapter 1: Likes and Dislikes
2 “smothered in whipped cream”: Rozin and Vollmecke 1986, 435.
2 distinction between “wanting” . . . and “liking”: See Havermans 2011; Berridge 2009; and Castro and Berridge 2014.
3 “commensurate ‘liking’”: Berridge 2009.
3 “highly entangled”: See, for example, Havermans 2011; Wise 2006.
3 also wanted less: Berridge 2009.
3 once liked them so much: Wise 2006.
4 blind to them: Catanzano et al. 2013; Kaminski et al. 2000; Tepper 2008.
4 actually enjoy eating: Llewellyn et al. 2010.
4 handed so early: Hales and Barker 2001.
5 what tasted good: Strauss 2006.
5 full list of foods: Davis 1939.
6 “correction of his manners”: Ibid.
7 “under our eyes”: Ibid.
7 two pounds of them one day: Davis 1928.
8 bone density: Strauss 2006.
8 omnivores all their lives: Scheindlin 2005. Stephen Strauss conducted an interview with Donald’s widow in 2001 that confirmed he was always a “good eater” (email from Strauss to author, July 2014).
8 what their bodies need: See, for example, Goldberg 1990; Planck 2007; Spock 1946. See Birch 1999 for a refutation of the conclusion that Davis’s work supports the “wisdom of the body.”
10 “which appetite is a part”: Davis 1939.
10 1930s onward: Scheindlin 2005; see also Bentley 2006, 72–74.
10 “variety and balance”: Spock 1946.
10 let them eat cornflakes!: Hirschmann and Zaphiropoulos 1985.
10 “choose a balanced diet”: “A Modern Take on the Clara M. Davis Paper,” Baby Led Weaning, http://www.babyledweaning.com/features/random-stuff/a-modern-take-on-the-clara-m-davis-paper/, accessed November 2014.
11 they lost weight: Leigh Gibson 2001.
11 correct food died: Rozin 1969.
11 different matter: Leigh Gibson 2001, 203.
12 both boys and girls: Faith et al. 2006, 2012.
12 thing you want to eat: Prescott 2012, 175–176.
12 nonidentical twins: Fildes et al. 2014.
12 variation in foods eaten: Breen et al. 2006.
12 determining food habits: Fallon et al. 1984.
12 recoil from it at the dinner table: Wardle and Cook 2010.
12 regardless of their genes: Sullivan and Birch 1990.
12 “Where are you from?”: Rozin and Vollmecke 1986, 437.
14 “permanently inedible”: Rozin 2006.
14 green brassicas: Yotam Ottolenghi, “Sweet Sensations: Yotam Ottolenghi’s Brussels Sprout Recipes,” The Guardian, January 17, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/jan/17/brussels-sprout-recipes-yotam-ottolenghi.
14 hatred . . . of green vegetables?: Tepper 2008.
15 gene to taste them: Bartoshuk 2000; Dinehart et al. 2006; Duffy et al. 2004.
15 more bitter and less sweet: Dinehart et al. 2006.
15 either in children or adults: See, for example, Anliker et al. 1991.
16 “wine drinkers indeed”: Jancis Robinson, “The PROP Test and Reactions to It,” December 22, 2006, http://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/the-prop-test-and-reactions-to-it, accessed December 2014.
16 larger quantity than tasters did: Discussed in Tepper 2008.
16 differences between tasters and nontasters: Feeney et al. 2014.
17 salad dressing, and mayonnaise: Catanzaro et al. 2013.
17 “ever take a bite”: Ibid.
17 radius of where the child lived: Burd et al. 2013.
18 “weren’t supposed to like vegetables”: Conversation with the author, October 2013.
19 coined by Robert Zajonc in 1968: Zajonc 1968.
19 Brie over Camembert: Zajonc 1980. See also Zajonc and Markus 1982 for a discussion of how “mere exposure” plays out in food preferences.
19 “never tried it!”: Birch and Marlin 1982.
19 group of 70 American eight-year-olds: Skinner et al. 2002.
21 overjustification effect: Prescott 2012.
21 plateful of spiders: Ibid.
22 children’s likes and dislikes: Russell and Worsley 2013.
23 Cooke’s research: Añez et al. 2012; Carnell et al. 2011; Cooke et al. 2011; Wardle et al. 2003a, 2003b; Wardle and Cooke 2008, 2010.
24 tend to miss it: Harris 2008.
24 once-preferred carrot puree: Maier et al. 2007.
24 purees at four months: Coulthard et al. 2014.
25 six months after birth: “UK Breastfeeding Rates,” The Baby Friendly Initiative, UNICEF UK homepage, http://www.unicef.org.uk/BabyFriendly/About-Baby-Friendly/Breastfeeding-in-the-UK/UK-Breastfeeding-rates/, accessed March 2015.
25 18.8 percent: National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Breastfeeding Report Card: United States / 2014,” http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/pdf/2014breastfeedingreportcard.pdf, accessed March 2015.
25 stronger flavors for later: Karmel 1991, 22.
26 “Tiny Tastes”: “The Research Behind Tiny Tastes,” Weight Concern, http://www.weightconcern.org.uk/tinytastes, accessed November 2014.
27 severe feeding difficulties: Ernsperger and Stegen-Hanson 2004.
27 foods that they find acceptable: Schreck et al. 2004; Ernsperger and Stegen-Hanson 2004.
28 limited repertoire: Paul et al. 2007.
30 “life is grand”: Duncker 1941.
30 poor district of the city: Duncker 1938.
31 sixty-nine separate experiments: Cruwys
et al. 2015.
32 Jewish woman: Schnall 2007.
32 “vital domain as food?”: Duncker 1938.
33 “came to like it”: Ibid.
33 age of thirty-seven: Schnall 2007.
35 “too intense”: Zeinstra et al. 2009.
35 bored by simplicity: Köster and Mojet 2006; Lévy et al. 2006.
Chapter 2: Memory
39 “like dirt”: Spieler 2014.
40 nasal cavity: Small et al. 2005.
40 taste disorder: “How Many People Suffer from Anosmia?,” 2003, Anosmia Foundation, http://www.anosmiafoundation.com/suffer.shtml, accessed March 2015.
40 pane of glass: Conversation with author, January 2014.
41 “‘Who am I?’”: Our Changing Taste, March 2013, BBC, http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01r95hj, accessed November 2014.
41 willingly took it: Rozin et al. 1998.
41 “little tight”: Ibid.
42 same gratification: Leigh Gibson 2001.
42 “desire is lost”: Wise 2006.
42 students and their mothers: Unusan 2006.
43 even in the first week: Steiner 1979.
44 amniotic fluid tasted: Schaal et al. 2000.
44 smelled garlicky: Mennella et al. 1995.
44 exaggerated taste for sweetness: Gen-Hua Zhang et al. 2011.
44 diet during lactation: Gugusheff et al. 2013.
44 preferences for certain foods: Mennella and Beauchamp 1991, 1993; Mennella et al. 1995, 2005.
45 Beauchamp puts it: “Bad Eating Habits Start in the Womb,” New York Times, December 1, 2013.
45 early stages of eating: Dr. Lucy Cooke, “Understanding Young Children’s Food Preferences,” paper presented at Nutrition and Health Live conference, London, 2013.
45 different hydrolysate formulas: Beauchamp and Mennella 2011.
46 essence in each bottle: Salen 1940.
46 baby rejects the bottle: “Vanilla Natural Flavoring in Babies Bottles,” Baby Centre, http://community.babycentre.co.uk/post/a23870045/vanilla_natural_flavoring_in_babies_bottles, accessed June 2015.
46 city of Wenzhou: Yan Shen et al. 2014.
47 “like candy”: Susan Donaldson James, “Chocolate Toddler ‘Formula’ Pulled After Sugar Uproar,” June 10, 2010, ABC News, http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Diabetes/mead-johnson-drops-chocolate-flavored-emfagrow-parent-uproar/story?id=10876301, accessed November 2014.
47 postwar years: Haller et al. 1999.
47 trying to appeal to: Lobstein 1988.
48 another person’s sweat: Lee and Sobel 2010.
48 “designed not to forget”: Levin Pelchat and Blank 2001.
49 “higher concentration”: Malnic et al. 1999.
50 brain’s unique flavor system: Shepherd 2012.
50 “resemble any other”: Ibid.
52 “slice of the moon”: Shephard 2001.
53 “childhood gatherings”: Thompson 2001.
55 “chocolate more delicious”: Prescott 2012.
55 “burning of the lips”: Sutton 2001.
56 “‘white gold’ to me”: Ibid.
56 “around forever”: Carafoli 2001.
56 “stuffed cabbage”: Mendelson 2013.
58 “administer the anaesthetic”: Blumenthal 2009.
58 everyone could detect it: Blake 2001; Dalton et al. 259.
59 “summers of my youth”: Patterson 2013.
59 “re-create a Twinkie”: Patterson, conversation with author, February 2014.
60 “home from school”: Sutton 2001.
62 “doesn’t even taste good”: Bittman 2013.
64 “never quenched”: Dutton 1906.
64 and rising: Global Ice Cream, October 2014, MarketLine Industry Profile.
Chapter 3: Children’s Food
66 “food we disliked”: Quoted in Clifton and Spencer 1993.
66 pudding’s role as food for children: Hecht 1912, 1913.
67 “letter box”: McMillan and Sanderson 1909.
67 beef and lentils: Stevens Bryant 1913.
67 Manchester grammar school’s dessert menu: Hecht 1912.
69 never ate it: Ibid., 89.
69 “stupid feeding”: McMillan and Sanderson 1909.
70 “must not suffer”: Crowley 1909.
70 “better than any other”: Hecht 1913.
71 “would recoil”: Rowley Leigh, “Recipe: Rice Pudding,” Financial Times, December 6, 2013, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/fceef972-5c6b-11e3-931e-00144feabdc0.html#slide0.
71 “thankful for it”: Evening News, May 14, 1912.
73 “ ‘ill taste’”: Culpeper 1662.
73 make them stubborn: Visser 1991, 46.
74 “held on the knees”: Washington 2008.
74 “protein starvation”: Crowley 1909.
74 lunchtime pennies: Stevens Bryant 1913.
75 0.6 grams of protein: Ibid.
75 “pound a week”: Pember Reeves 1994.
75 “remains of adult food”: Ibid.
76 “two meals in the day”: Ibid.
76 stale tea: Hecht 1913, 310.
76 particularly fruit: Pooley 2009, 2010.
77 sweet grapes, and melons: Albala 2002.
78 tiny stomachs: Hardyment 1995.
78 “adult people”: Dutton 1906, 15.
78 “children are brought up”: Ibid., 17.
79 could save lives: Ibid., 23.
79 cookbook of 1874: Clark 1874.
79 published in 1894: Holt 1923.
80 child was eleven: Ibid.
81 “through a cullender”: Rundell 1827.
81 “opening” in its effects: Pooley 2009, 2010.
81 account of the orange peel: Pritchard 1909.
82 dry rusks: Hecht 1912, 304–305.
82 “plain vegetables”: David 282.
82 “evil-smelling”: Clifton and Spencer 1993.
84 “homemade custard or milk pudding”: Quoted in Hardyment 1995, 264.
84 chain restaurants in 2001: Boorstin 2001.
85 “gummy worm”: Ibid.
85 version of French fries: Groves 2002.
86 “perhaps even deadly”: Kawash 2013.
86 teddy bears or ghosts: Cathro and Hilliam 1994.
87 health message: Castonguay et al. 2013.
87 “amusing a child with food”: Groves 2002, 119.
87 twistable, stringable, or dunkable: Elliott 2008.
87 cheese sauce in the pack: Hilliam 1996.
87 “for them”: Urbick 2000, 65.
88 sachet of ketchup: Wilson 2002.
88 wish was for “control”: Urbick 2011, 219.
88 “adding milk gives the child control”: Ibid.
88 choose their own yogurts: Urbick 2000, 11.
88 previous day: Lobstein 1988, 40.
89 egg yolk stirred in: Ibid., 48.
89 “‘serve what their children eat’”: Williams 2011, 135.
89 US kids’ menus: Jennings 2009.
89 rejected unfamiliar dishes: Associated Press, “Some Schools Drop Out of New Healthy Federal Lunch Program, Citing Small Portions and Foods Kids Won’t Eat,” New York Daily News, August 28, 2013, http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/schools-drop-new-healthy-federal-lunch-program-article-1.1439576, accessed June 2015.
90 “contraband nature”: Zoe Williams, “Anti-natal,” The Guardian, January 30, 2009, http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2009/jan/30/family1, accessed March 2015.
91 change their food habits: See Wansink 2002.
91 “not good for them”: Mead 1943.
92 drawing room with the grown-ups: David 2000.
93 “retained in most countries”: Popkin 2006.
94 sixty-nine childr
en and seventy mothers: Skinner et al. 2002.
95 secret tomb: Humble 2010.
Chapter 4: Feeding
99 some organic cause: Cole and Lanham 2011.
99 wrong in the child’s care: Block and Krebs 2005.
99 abuse in their own past: Weston and Colloton 1993.
104 to and from school: Goh 2009.
105 districts of Beijing: Jiang Jingxiong et al. 2007.
105 “feeding her so much”: Ibid.
106 “those still growing”: Hecht 1912, 33–34.
106 low in the spring: Prentice 2001.
106 chubby ones: Ibid.; Hales and Barker 2001.
106 “if the child is fat”: Jiang Jingxiong et al. 2007.
106 ripe for pinching: Baldeesh Rai, “Asian Diets and Cardiovascular Disease,” paper presented at Nutrition and Health Live conference, London, 2013.
107 44.2 percent in the United States: Ng et al. 2014.
107 “quite an achievement”: French and Crabbe 2010.
108 “wouldn’t recognize as food”: Pollan 2008.
108 behavior merited treats: Jiang Jingxiong et al. 2007.
109 “feelings of disgust”: Beecher 1986.
110 “placed in life”: Ibid.
111 maize called eko: Bentley et al. 2011.
112 “traditional feeding practices”: Birch 1998, 1999; Birch and Anzman 2010.
112 “forced consumption”: Batsell et al. 2002.
113 “forced to eat”: Holt 1923.
113 “child’s progress” in eating: Hubble and Blake 1944, 447.
114 “cold steel”: Clifton and Spencer 1993.
115 forced to eat food: Batsell et al. 2002.
115 get their children to eat: Carnell et al. 2011.
116 sometimes they were not: Galloway et al. 2006.
116 “It’s so annoying”: Ibid.
118 weigh more as adults: Discussed in Vollmer and Mobley 2013.
118 predictor of obesity: Ibid.
119 parental BMI: Tovar et al. 2012.
119 higher weight in children: Vollmer and Mobley 2013.
119 parenting styles: Rhee et al. 2006.
119 indulgent feeding: Vollmer and Mobley 2013.
119 habits for life: Hoerr et al. 2009.
119 bodyweight in the children: Huang et al. 2012.
120 hunger and fullness: Carnell et al. 2011.
120 192 girls: Fisher and Birch 2002.
121 emotional eaters: Vollmer and Mobley 2013.
121 food when angry: Topham et al. 2011.
121 “competent eater”: “Ellyn Satter’s Division of Responsibility in Feeding,” Ellyn Satter Institute, http://www.ellynsatterinstitute.org, accessed December 2014.