Troubled Water
Page 24
A hopeful sign of progress against the inequities that spurred his anger as a young man came when Avinger’s own daughter attended Girard College, the kindergarten-through-twelfth-grade private institution whose segregation had so enraged him when he was younger and living in the Philadelphia neighborhood.
A CEASE-FIRE TOOK EFFECT in Vietnam on January 23, 1973. The Kitty Hawk was deployed in the western Pacific again in November 1973.
The Kitty Hawk riot was a turning point for race relations in the Navy. The incident revealed the simmering discontent among black sailors and showed that some of their anger was justified because of how they were recruited and how they were treated in the Navy. It also revealed that a significant portion of the problems stemmed from cultural misunderstandings—the white establishment of the old Navy just didn’t get why some black sailors reacted negatively to what others saw as routine unpleasantness, such as mess deck duty.
Though that awareness came as the result of violence and criminal activity, the Navy finally recognized that it had to change how it dealt with black sailors. In the years to come, the Navy made many improvements in policies and procedures: Test standards were raised again to avoid sailors enlisting and then finding they were unqualified for advancement; criminal record limitations were tightened to eliminate the “thugs,” such as some of those involved in the Kitty Hawk riot; recruiters were prohibited from overpromising about career potential and living conditions; voluntary racial segregation on ships was prohibited; and the Navy made sure minority sailors were given a formal system through which to complain and seek redress for grievances. The Kitty Hawk riot provided momentum for Admiral Elmo Zumwalt’s fledgling effort to improve race relations. Within two years, the Navy provided a racial awareness seminar to more than 70 percent of all naval personnel. By 1977 the number of blacks in the Navy—both enlisted men and officers—was rising steadily, partly as a result of affirmative action programs. Sailors in today’s Navy, of all races, benefit from many of the lessons learned in the Kitty Hawk incident.
Though the riot drew some media attention, it was quickly forgotten by most people. The Navy does not deny the story, but it has downplayed its scope and significance. The result is that few Americans know that it happened or realize how close the country came to seeing its own citizens killing one another on a ship that was supposed to be an example of America’s best.
Fewer still know how a singular act of courage by a black executive officer prevented greater bloodshed. In his actions and words, Ben Cloud showed that there is more than one way for a military leader to sacrifice himself for his men and his country.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTERVIEWS AND CORRESPONDENCE WITH AUTHOR
Allen, G. Kirk
Avinger, Terry
Callahan, John
Cloud, Benjamin
Dysart, Tom
Keel, Robert
Mason, Chris
Pettus, Perry
Townsend, Marland
Travers, John
Young, Garland
PERIODICALS
“Black Pleads Guilty in Kitty Hawk Case.” The New York Times, March 8, 1973, p. 31.
“Carrier Airman Convicted in Race Rioting in October.” The New York Times, February 21, 1973, p. 26.
Communist Party, USA. “The Vietnam War and the Revolt of Black GIs.” Revolutionary Worker, February 26, 1995.
“Congressional Investigators Ask Marines to Explain Role in Racial Trouble Aboard the Carrier Kitty Hawk.” The New York Times, December 7, 1972, p. 24.
“Conviction of Black Overturned By Navy.” The New York Times, February 28, 1973, p. 44.
“Court-Martial Opens for First of 21 Blacks on Carrier.” The New York Times, December 30, 1972, p. 2.
“Hicks Seen Ideal Head for Kitty Hawk Probe.” The Washington Post, December 4, 1972, p. A2.
“Hill Panel Criticizes Navy ‘Permissiveness.’” The Washington Post, January 24, 1973, p. A3.
“House Inquiry Links Navy’s Racial Strife to Laxity.” The New York Times, January 24, 1973, p. 11.
“House Panel Ends Study of Disorders on Ships in Pacific.” The New York Times, December 13, 1972, p. 17.
“Kitty Hawk Back at Home Port; Sailors Describe Racial Conflict.” The New York Times, November 29, 1972, p. 24.
“Kitty Hawk Cases Frustrate Navy.” The New York Times, March 16, 1973, p.11.
“Kitty Hawk Crewman Pleads Guilty on Charges of Rioting.” The New York Times, February 6, 1973, p. 20.
“Kitty Hawk Crew Describes Racial Battle Aboard Ship.” The Washington Post, November 24, 1972, p. A3.
“Kitty Hawk Officer Denies Orders Conflicted During Riot.” The Washington Post, December 7, 1972, p. A3.
“Kitty Hawk Officer Traces Riot to Marine Dispersal of Blacks.” The New York Times, January 26, 1973, p. 6.
“Kitty Hawk Sailor Enters Guilty Plea.” The New York Times, January 6, 1973, p. 23.
“Kitty Hawk Sailor Guilty on One Count.” The New York Times, January 3, 1973, p. 79.
“Kitty Hawk Trial Delay Requested.” The Washington Post, November 6, 1972, p. A8.
“Last Kitty Hawk Case Completed.” The Washington Post, April 10, 1973, p. A2.
“Last Trial Is Held in Kitty Hawk Case.” The New York Times, April 11, 1973, p. 11.
“NAACP Says It Has Proof White Kitty Hawk Sailor Lied.” The Washington Post, February 24, 1973, p. A10.
“Navy Withdraws Charge.” The New York Times, January 12, 1973, p. 66.
“The New Captain, Another Queeg?” Kitty Litter (San Francisco, CA), Vol. 1, Issue 7 (August 1972).
“Prejudice and Perjury Charged in Investigation of Carrier Riot.” The New York Times, February 24, 1973, p. 58.
“Sailor Tells Inquiry Blacks Beat White.” The New York Times, December 27, 1972, p. 14.
“Sailors Cleared in Riot Charge.” The Washington Post, January 13, 1973, p. B8.
“Sailors Describe Racial Battling.” The New York Times, November 24, 1972, p. 17.
Socialist Worker Online. Rebellion in the Ranks: The Solders’ Revolt in Vietnam. Accessed at www.socialistworker.org/2005–2/553/553_06_SoldiersRevolt.shtml.
“Storm Warnings.” Time, December 11, 1972. Accessed at www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878095,00.html.
“21 Black Sailors, Accused in Kitty Hawk Riot, Refuse to Appear Before Congressional Inquiry Unit.” The New York Times, December 8, 1972, p. 19.
Vietnam Veterans Against the War Anti-Imperialist. The Vietnam War and the Revolt of Black GIs. Accessed at www/vvawai.org/sw/sw31/pgs_25–34/black_gis_revolt.html.
“Witness in Kitty Hawk Hearing Charges That Whites Beat Black Officer in Rioting on Carrier.” The New York Times, December 26, 1972, p. 16.
BOOKS
Cortright, David, and Zinn, Howard. Soldiers in Revolt: GI Resistance during the Vietnam War. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005.
Guttridge, Leonard F. Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection. New York: Berkley Trade, 2002.
Sherwood, John Darrell. Black Sailor, White Navy: Racial Unrest in the Fleet during the Vietnam War Era. New York: New York University Press, 2007.
Woodman, Richard. A Brief History of Mutiny: Furious, Savage and Bloody: 400 Years of Rebellion. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2005.
OFFICIAL HEARINGS AND PUBLICATIONS
Commanding Officer, USS Kitty Hawk. “Command History, 1972.” February 27, 1973.
Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, 92nd Congress, 2nd Session. Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Disciplinary Problems in the U.S. Navy.Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1973.
Department of Defense. Project 100,000: Characteristics and Performance of “New Standards Men.” Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Manpower and Reserve Affairs, 1968.
Fey, Peter. The Effects of Leadership on Carrier Air Wing Sixteen’s Loss Rates During Operation Rolling Thunder, 1965–1968. Fort Leaven
worth, KS: U.S. Army Command General Staff College, 2006.
Haak, Frank S. Investigative Report of November 18, 1972: Formal One-Officer Investigation to Inquire into the Circumstances Surrounding an Incident of Racial Violence which Occurred on Board USS KITTY HAWK (CVA 63) on the Night of 12 October 1972. Washington, DC: United States Navy, 1972.
Mayo, George D. Fleet Performance of Project 100,000 Personnel in the Aviation Structural Mechanic S (Structures) Rating. San Diego: Naval Personnel Research Activity, 1969.
Reuter, W., ed. 1972 Westpac Cruise, USS Kitty Hawk CVA63 [cruise book]. San Diego: Pischel Yearbooks, 1972.
Sellman, Wayne. Statement on Post-Service Experiences of Project 100,000 [P/100000] Vets. Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations House Committee on Vets’ Affairs, February 28, 1990.
USS Kitty Hawk. Media Kit. San Diego, 2008.
USS Kitty Hawk. Ship’s log, 1972. Washington, DC: United States Navy, 1972.
NOTES
CHAPTER ONE
The material in this chapter is based on the recollections of Robert Keel. Most of the personal stories featured in the book are based on the recollections of the person being discussed, as told to the author, and usually confirmed by other records or consistent with known facts. Material not cited in these notes as coming from another source came from personal interviews with the subject.
CHAPTER TWO
Townsend’s background is based on his account to the author.
p. 9. Townsend was beginning to doubt: John Darrell Sherwood, Black Sailor, White Navy (New York: New York University Press, 2007), pp. 69–70.
CHAPTER THREE
p. 17. “The methods that I used”: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, 92nd Congress, 2nd Ses., Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Disciplinary Problems in the U.S. Navy (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 583.
Cloud’s background is based on his account to the author.
CHAPTER FOUR
p. 42. His college degree earned him: Sherwood, Black Sailor, White Navy, p. 66.
p. 43. Townsend was under the impression: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Hearings, p. 1133.
CHAPTER FIVE
p. 47. Military applicants had been screened since 1950: Wayne Sellman, Statement on Post-Service Experiences of Project 100,000 [P/100000] Vets, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations House Committee on Vets’ Affairs, February 28, 1990.
p. 48. Just over half of all project sailors: Department of Defense, Project 100,000: Characteristics and Performance of “New Standards Men” (Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Manpower and Reserve Affairs, 1968), p. 12.
p. 49. A 1969 assessment of their performance: George D. Mayo, Fleet Performance of Project 100,000 Personnel in the Aviation Structural Mechanic S (Structures) Rating (San Diego: Naval Personnel Research Activity, 1969), p. 29.
p. 49. “These data provide no evidence”: Sellman, Statement on Post-Service Experiences.
p. 50. “using the nigger against the gook”: Communist Party, USA, “The Vietnam War and the Revolt of Black GIs,” Revolutionary Worker, February 26, 1995, p. 1.
p. 57. That kind of attitude led to a scathing attack: “The New Captain, Another Queeg?” Kitty Litter, Vol. 1, Issue 7 (August 1972).
p. 59. At first, resistance within military ranks: David Cortright and Howard Zinn, Soldiers in Revolt: GI Resistance during the Vietnam War (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), p. 107.
p. 59. “Either quit the Army now”: Communist Party, USA, “Vietnam War,” p. 3.
p. 60. One poll found that 76 percent of black servicemen: Ibid.
p. 60. A publication of the Revolutionary Communist Party: Ibid.
p. 60. One of the most prominent uprisings was at Fort Bragg: Ibid., p. 70.
p. 60. A great many of the incidents: Ibid., p. 71.
p. 61. A particularly bad uprising took place: Ibid., pp. 73–74.
p. 61. In the Navy, until 1971: Ibid., p. 107.
p. 62. The Navy would record a total: Ibid., p. 912.he sake of my career”: Ibid., p. 575.
p. 62. Townsend had received classified messages: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Hearings, p. 525.
p. 64. The men often complained about the captain’s mast: The captain’s mast is named so because in earlier times the captain held the proceeding at the mizzenmast of a three-masted ship, the middle one that traditionally separated the officers’ and crew’s quarters.
p. 65. On June 8, 1972, Avinger: Sherwood, Black Sailor, White Navy, p. 72.
p. 69. Twenty-year-old James W. Radford: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Hearings, pp. 1003–1004.
p. 70. A white mess cook refused: “Storm Warnings,” Time, December 11, 1972. Accessed at: www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878095,00.html.
p. 72. formally organized command structure: Perry Pettus insists that no such organized structure existed among black sailors, that it was only imagined by whites on the Kitty Hawk. Marland Townsend and many officials who investigated following the riot disagree, saying that the command structure definitely existed, even though the less-involved black sailors might not have known it.
p. 73. One dap, known as Kill the Beast: This description of the anti-white dap is provided by Pettus.
p. 74. There were those who took all the symbolism: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Hearings, p. 787. Chief Aviation Ordnancemen Charles M. Johnson, who worked closely with XO Cloud as a legal officer on disciplinary matters with the crew, told the committee that he thought the number of seriously militant black sailors was small but that they pressured many more to show allegiance and participate in the riots on October 12. Black sailors were ridiculed and ostracized, or worse, if they did not show allegiance to the black cause on the Kitty Hawk, he told the committee. During the riot, Johnson said, he looked at a crowd of about 100 rampaging in the mess deck and guessed that only 10 or 20 of them had joined the group willingly.
CHAPTER SIX
p. 79. “Men of the Kitty Hawk”: The actual words spoken by the captain were not recorded, but this is the way Garland Young recalls them. In particular, he recalls that the men thought the captain’s choice of words and tone were insensitive for such a discouraging announcement.
p. 80. In July, a white sailor had jammed: Sherwood, Black Sailor, White Navy, p. 79.
p. 80. So, as he had done for the previous: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Hearings, p. 496.
p. 81. And these were very experienced women: Garland Young recalls that the black sailors on the Kitty Hawk, including a good friend of his, were upset because most of the prostitutes in Olongapo would not accept black customers. Not only were the black sailors offended by the discrimination, but they also were left sexually frustrated, he says. Young surmises that the inability for young black men to obtain the same relief that the white sailors enjoyed was one more factor contributing to the high tension on board.
p. 81. At the height of the war: Sherwood, Black Sailor, White Navy, p. 80.
p. 85. a black Kitty Hawk sailor, Airman Dwight W. Hornton: Ibid.
p. 86. a white shore patrolman from the oiler: Ibid.
p. 88. The investigator forced his way into the head: Ibid., p. 81.
CHAPTER SEVEN
p. 93. had the two Marines who had been posted: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, Hearings, p. 604.
p. 95. Word was going around of how a white sailor: Ibid., pp. 603–604. Carlucci testified that, after investigation, the white sailor’s version of the story was different, but apparently there had been some dispute between the two and some interaction with Filipino nationals. The Filipinos would not cooperate with the investigation, so Carlucci dropped it. The white sailor, however, had to live with the Marines for protection over the next several days.
p. 99. Townsend had th
e men sit: Townsend does not recall the incident described by Pettus, but he says it is consistent with how he would have reacted that day to news that Marines had handcuffed black sailors for being in groups of more than two. Pettus is certain that he and his friends were taken to the captain and that the captain apologized for their treatment.
p. 100. Another spat broke out: Sherwood, Black Sailor, White Navy, p. 83.
CHAPTER EIGHT
p. 108. Airman Rowe had been charged: Frank S. Haak, Investigative Report of November 18, 1972: Formal One-Officer Investigation to Inquire into the Circumstances Surrounding an Incident of Racial Violence which Occurred on Board USS KITTY HAWK (CVA 63) on the Night of 12 October 1972 (Washington, DC: United States Navy, 1972), p. 77.