49. J. H. Wolfe, “International Law and Diplomatic Bargaining: A Commentary on the Sudeten German Question,” Bohemia 14 (1973): 384.
50. A.-M. de Zayas, “The Legality of Mass Population Transfers: The German Experience 1945–48,” East European Quarterly 12:1 (Spring 1978): 15.
51. See Schabas, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court, p. 105.
52. See above, p. 33.
53. Waters, “Remembering Sudetenland,” 127. Emphasis in original.
54. P. Maguire, Law and War: International Law and American History, rev. ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), pp. 213–4.
CHAPTER 13. MEANING AND MEMORY
1. R. M. A. Hankey to M. Vyvyan, Trinity College, Cambridge, July 11, 1947, FO 371/66217.
2. J. L. Guntner and A. M. McLean, eds., Literary Theory and Theater Practice in the German Democratic Republic (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1998), p. 11; J. Kalb, The Theater of Heiner Müller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 78–86.
3. M. Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards: A Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 165.
4. D. L. Bergen, War and Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), p. 168.
5. R. G. Moeller, War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), p. 84.
6. Zachodnia Agencja Prasowa, 1939–1950: Population Movements Between the Oder and Bug Rivers (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Zachodnie, 1961), pp. 8, 10.
7. See I. Haar, “Die deutschen ‘Vertreibungsverluste’: Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Dokumentation der Vertreibung,” Tel Aviver Jahrbuch für deutsche Geschichte 35 (2007): 251–272.
8. H. Fehrenbach, Cinema in Democratizing Germany: Reconstructing National Identity after Hitler (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 146.
9. See J. von Moltke, No Place Like Home: Locations of Heimat in German Cinema (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 135–142.
10. R. G. Moeller, “War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany,” American Historical Review 101:4 (October 1996): 1013, 1026.
11. Moeller, War Stories, p. 174.
12. F. Biess, Homecomings: Returning POWs and the Legacies of Defeat in Postwar Germany (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), pp. 6, 15.
13. See, e.g., S. Spülbeck, “Ethnography of an Encounter: Reactions to Refugees in Post-war Germany and Russian Migrants after the Reunification—Context, Analogies and Changes,” in A. J. Rieber, ed., Forced Migration in Central and Eastern Europe, 1939–1950 (London: Frank Cass, 2000), p. 179.
14. S. Goltermann, “The Imagination of Disaster: Death and Survival in Postwar West Germany,” in A. Confino, P. Betts, and D. Schumann, eds., Between Mass Death and Individual Loss: The Place of the Dead in Twentieth-Century Germany (Oxford: Berghahn, 2008), pp. 261–274.
15. S. Berger, “On Taboos, Traumas and Other Myths: Why the Debate About German Victims During the Second World War Is Not a Historians’ Controversy,” in B. Niven, ed., Germans as Victims: Remembering the Past in Contemporary Germany (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 217.
16. R. Schulze, “The Politics of Memory: Flight and Expulsion of German Populations after the Second World War and German Collective Memory,” National Identities 8:4 (December 2006): 369.
17. A. Kossert, Kalte Heimat: Die Geschichte der deutschen Vertriebenen nach 1945 (Berlin: Siedler, 2008), p. 189.
18. E. Langenbacher, “Ethical Cleansing? The Expulsion of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe,” in N. A. Robins and A. Jones, eds., Genocides By the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), p. 69.
19. M. Kent, “Exceptional Bonds: Revenge and Reconciliation in Potulice [Potulitz], Poland, 1945 and 1998,” in S. B. Várdy and T. H. Tooley, eds., Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2003), pp. 623–4.
20. V. Ackermann, “Das Schweigen der Flüchtlingskinder: Psychische Folgen von Krieg, Flucht und Vertreibung bei den Deutschen nach 1945,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 30:3 (2004): 461. See also A. Lehmann, Im Fremden ungewollt zuhaus: Flüchtlinge und Vertriebene in Westdeutschland 1945–1990 (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1991).
21. J. Mlynárik, Thesen zur Aussiedlung der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei, 1945–1947 (Munich: Danubius, 1985), p. 24.
22. Ibid., p. 42.
23. See B. F. Abrams, “Morality, Wisdom, and Revision: The Czech Opposition of the 1970s and the Expulsion of the Sudeten Germans,” East European Politics and Societies 9:2 (Spring 1995): 234–255.
24. Mlynárik, Thesen zur Aussiedlung der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei, pp. 48–9.
25. T. Urban, Der Verlust: Die Vertreibung der Deutschen und Polen im 20. Jahrhundert (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2004), pp. 188–9.
26. N. M. Naimark, “The Persistence of the ‘Postwar’: Germany and Poland,” in F. Biess and R. G. Moeller, eds., Histories of the Aftermath: The Legacies of the Second World War in Europe (Oxford: Berghahn, 2010), p. 23.
27. G. Weigel, Witness to Hope: The Biography of Pope John Paul II (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), pp. 178–180.
28. M. Zaborowski, Germany, Poland and Europe: Cooperation and Europeanisation (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005), p. 69.
29. E. Moszyński, “The Church on the Western Territories,” Polish Perspectives 16:2 (February 1973): 20.
30. P. Lutomski, “The Polish Expulsion of the German Population in the Aftermath of World War II,” in A. M. Kacowicz and P. Lutomski, eds., Population Resettlement in International Conflicts: A Comparative Study (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2007), p. 103.
31. Kossert, Kalte Heimat, p. 305.
32. V. Havel, To the Castle and Back (New York: Random House, 2008), p. 140.
33. P. Lutomski, “Acknowledging Each Other as Victims: An Unmet Challenge in the Process of Polish-German Reconciliation,” in L. Cohen-Pfister and D. Wienröder-Skinner, eds., Victims and Perpetrators, 1933–1945: (Re-)Presenting the Past in Post-Unification Culture (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2006), p. 246.
34. New York Times, January 22, 1997.
35. K. Cordell and S. Wolff, “Ethnic Germans in Poland and the Czech Republic: A Comparative Evaluation,” Nationalities Papers 33:2 (June 2005): 261.
36. J. Huener, Auschwitz, Poland, and the Politics of Commemoration, 1945–1979 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003), pp. 52–3. See also D. Matelski, “Polityka narodowościowa PRL wobec mniejszości niemieckiej (1944–1989),” Przegląd historyczny 88:3–4 (1997): 487–497.
37. K. Cordell and S. Wolff, Germany’s Foreign Policy Towards Poland and the Czech Republic: Ostpolitik Revisited (Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2005), p. 59.
38. See, e.g., M. Alexander, “Die tschechische Diskussion über die Vertreibung der Deutschen und deren Folgen,” Bohemia 34:2 (1993): 407–8.
39. Die Zeit, September 18, 2003.
40. Tygodnik Powszechny, August 17, 2003.
41. Wprost, September 21, 2003; P. Lutomski, “The Debate about a Center against Expulsions: An Unexpected Crisis in German-Polish Relations?” German Studies Review 27:3 (October 2004): 449.
42. S. Crawshaw, Easier Fatherland: Germany and the Twenty-first Century (London: Continuum, 2004), p. 157.
43. Langenbacher, “Ethical Cleansing,” p. 63.
44. M. Brumlik, Wer Sturm sät: Die Vertreibung der Deutschen (Berlin: Aufbau, 2005), p. 88.
45. Quoted in R. Wittlinger, “The Merkel Government’s Politics of the Past,” German Politics and Society 26:4 (Winter 2008):
46. N. Davies and R. Moorhouse, Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City (London: Jonathan Cape, 2002), p. 483.
47. Crawshaw, Easier Fatherland, p. 159.
48. S. Wolff, The German Question since 1919 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), p. 168.
; 49. Cordell and Wolff, Germany’s Foreign Policy towards Poland and the Czech Republic, p. 78; “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” (1948), art. 1.
CONCLUSION
1. “Draft Report to the Coordinating Committee Concerning the Question of Population Transfers,” submitted by the U.S. Representative, October 23, 1947, DPOW/P (47) 74, RG 260/390/50/32/06, OMG, PW & DP Directorate: General Records, 1945–1948, box 382, file 13, NARA.
2. PW & DP Directorate, “Section VII–Population Transfers,” February 5, 1947, FO 371/64222.
3. PW & DP Branch, “Memorandum to Major General Keating—Subject: Sudeten Transfers,” December 13, 1946, OMG, Records of the Civil Administration Division, PW & DP Branch: Records Relating to Expellees in the U.S. Zone, 1945–49, RG 260/390/42/26/1-2, box 187, “Agreements Expellees” file, NARA.
4. W. Borodziej, “Ucieczka—Wypędzenie—Wysiedlenie Przymusowe,” in A. Lawaty and H. Orłowski, eds., Polacy i niemcy: Historia—kultura—polityka (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 2003), p. 104.
5. The Times, February 18, 1944.
6. Quoted in M. Frank, Expelling the Germans: British Opinion and Post-1945 Population Transfer in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 95.
7. M. Ignatieff, Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism (London: BBC Books, 1993), p. 45.
8. K. Cordell and S. Wolff, “Ethnic Germans in Poland and the Czech Republic: A Comparative Evaluation,” Nationalities Papers 33:2 (June 2005): 258, 263, 265.
9. J. R. Sanborn, “‘Unsettling the Empire’: Violent Migrations and Social Disaster in Russia During World War I,” Journal of Modern History 77:2 (June 2005): 303.
10. For particulars of collaborationist activities in support of the Soviet invaders, see A. V. Prusin, The Lands Between: Conflict in the East European Borderlands, 1870–1992 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 136–148.
11. T. Staněk, Verfolgung 1945: Die Stellung der Deutschen in Böhmen, Mähren und Schlesien (außerhalb der Lager und Gefängnisse) (Vienna: Böhlau, 2002), p. 184.
12. S. Schimanski, Vain Victory (London: Victor Gollancz, 1946), p. 115.
13. Ibid., p. 116.
14. Lt.-Col. P. F. A. Growse, “Report by Liaison Team, Kohlfurt, up to 3 May 1946,” May 4, 1946, FO 1052/474.
15. Col. J. H. Fye, “Final Report—Transport of German Populations from Czechoslovakia to U.S. Zone, Germany,” November 30, 1946, p. 45, p. 6, Margaret Eleanor Fait papers, accession no. 84040–9.02, box 4, file 16, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.
16. Rudé právo, November 12, 1946.
17. M. Horkheimer and T. W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment (London: Allen Lane, 1973).
18. T. D. Curp, “The Politics of Ethnic Cleansing: The P.P.R., the P.Z.Z. and Wielkopolska’s Nationalist Revolution, 1944–1946,” Nationalities Papers 29:4 (2001): 594–5.
19. European Parliament, Directorate-General for Research, “Legal Opinion on the Beneŝ-Decrees and the Accession of the Czech Republic to the European Union,” October 2002, paras. 45–52.
20. E. Barkan, “Deserving and Undeserving Victims: Political Context and Legal Framework of Hard Cases of Reparation,” in K. de Feyter, S. Parmentier, et al., eds., Out of the Ashes: Reparation for Victims of Gross and Systematic Human Rights Violations (Antwerp: Intersentia, 2005), p. 88.
21. Ibid., p. 93.
22. Ibid., pp. 102, 103.
23. A. Bell-Fialkoff, Ethnic Cleansing (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), pp. 230, 220.
24. Ha’aretz, February 18, 2002.
25. New York Times, March 31, 1993.
26. J. W. Nickel, “What’s Wrong with Ethnic Cleansing?,” Journal of Social Philosophy 26:1 (Spring 1995): 12–13.
27. See C. D. Kaufmann, “When All Else Fails: Ethnic Population Transfers and Partitions in the Twentieth Century,” International Security 23:2 (Autumn 1998): 120–156; B. Clark, Twice a Stranger: The Mass Expulsions that Forged Modern Greece and Turkey (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); D. L. Byman, Keeping the Peace: Lasting Solutions to Ethnic Conflicts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002); M. Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
28. S. Ryan, The Transformation of Violent Intercommunal Conflict (Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007), p. 67.
29. T. D. Curp, A Clean Sweep? The Politics of Ethnic Cleansing in Western Poland, 1945–1960 (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2006), p. 193.
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