29. Office of Military Government for Greater Hesse, “Report on Länderrat Meeting, Evacuee Committee, held on 28 May 1946, 1000 hrs, at Stuttgart, Villa Reitzenstein,” May 30, 1946, OMGUS RG 260/390/42/24-25/7-1, Box 130, NARA.
30. M. Völklein, “Mitleid war von niemand zu erwarten”: Das Schicksal der deutschen Vertriebenen (Munich, Droemer, 2005), p. 56.
31. S. Wolff, The German Question since 1919 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), p. 79.
32. Richard Wilberforce, Control Office for Germany and Austria, London, to P. Dean, Foreign Office, August 9, 1946, FO 371/55913.
33. Quoted in M. Krauss, “Die Integration Vertriebener am Beispiel Bayerns—Konflikte und Erfolge,” in D. Hoffmann and M. Schwartz, eds., Geglückte Integration? Spezifika und Vergleichbarkeiten der Vertriebenen-Eingliederung in der SBZ/DDR (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1999), p. 50. See also V. Ackermann, “Homo barackensis: Westdeutsche Flüchtlingslager in den 1950er Jahren,” in V. Ackermann, B.-A. Rusinek, and F. Wiesemann, eds., Anknüpfungen: Kulturgeschichte–Landesgeschichte–Zeitgeschichte: Gedenkschrift für Peter Hüttenberger (Essen: Klartext, 1995), pp. 330–346.
34. M. Klug, “Report on Burlagsberg Refugee Camp near Löningen i[m] O[ldenburger Münsterland],” n.d. (c. October 1952), Bundesministerium für Vertriebene, Flüchtlinge und Kriegsgeschädigte papers, B 150/569, folder 1, BAK.
35. E. C. Wilkinson, Minister of Education, “Visit to Germany, 2nd-6th October, 1945,” October 10, 1945, FO 371/46935; HQ, Company D, 3rd Mil Govt Regiment, Welfare-Refugee Section, U.S. Army, weekly report for week ending August 16, 1947, Office of the Military Government for Germany, PW & DP Branch. box 127, “Chronological File of Outgoing Correspondence” file, RG 260/ 390/42/24–25/7–1, NARA; D. Favre, Baden-Baden delegation, CICR, “Camp de Refugiés de Giessen,” February 8, 1950, Archives Générales 1918–1950, G. 97/IV, box 1157, CICR.
36. H. Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau: The Uses and Abuses of a Concentration Camp, 1933–2001 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 162.
37. M. McLaren, “‘Out of the Huts Emerged a Settled People’: Community-Building in West German Refugee Camps,” German History 28:1 (March 2010): 41.
38. N. Gregor, Haunted City: Nuremberg and the Nazi Past (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), p. 45.
39. M. F. Cullis, “Report on Visit to Displaced Persons’ Camps in British Zone of Austria,” n.d. (c. August 1946), FO 1020/36.
40. Connor, Refugees and Expellees in Post-War Germany, p. 207.
41. Dr. J. Richter, Director, Volksdeutscheberatungstelle, “Report on the Present Situation of the Volksdeutsche in Austria,” September 1950, FO 1020/2519.
42. D. A. Griffin, Assistant to the Chief Civil Affairs Officer, Land Kärnten, to the Secretary of the Chamber of Agriculture, Klagenfurt, September 8, 1947, FO 1020/2748.
43. Richter, “Report on the Present Situation of the Volksdeutsche in Austria.”
44. Authorised Representative of the Regierungspräsident for the Transit Camps of Siegen to British Military Government, March 24, 1946, FO 1051/498.
45. Office of Military Government for Greater Hesse, “Report on Länderrat Meeting, Evacuee Committee, held on 26 Apr 46 1000 hrs, at Stuttgart, Villa Reitzenstein,” April 27, 1946, OMG, PW & DP Branch, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 130, NARA.
46. Maj.-Gen. W. C. D. Knapton, DCOS (Executive), CCG (BE), Lübbecke, to the deputy regional commissioners of the Länder in the British zone, January 9, 1948, FO 1032/2525.
47. Hatch, “Weekly Summary Report of Public Welfare and Displaced Persons Division of Week 7–13 September 1946,” September 17, 1946, OMG, Hesse, Civil Administration Division: Correspondence re. Public Welfare Branch Activities, 1945–48, RG 260/390/49/26–27/4–5, box 1113, “Weekly Summaries” file.
48. Chicago Tribune, September 25, 1947.
49. Connor, Refugees and Expellees in Post-War Germany, p. 204.
50. George Weisz, Chief, Refugee Branch, Civil Administration Division, OMGUS, to Mrs. H. Doerr, Democratization Branch, April 7, 1949, OMG, PW & DP Branch, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 127, “Chronological File of Outgoing Correspondence” file, NARA.
51. A. Kossert, Kalte Heimat: Die Geschichte der deutschen Vertriebenen nach 1945 (Berlin: Siedler, 2008), p. 41.
52. “An Investigation to Determine Any Changes in Attitudes of Native Germans Toward the Expellees in Württemberg-Baden,” November 14, 1946, Office of Military Government for Germany, OMGUS Surveys Branch, Information Control Division, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 128, NARA.
53. Capt. Walter Schoenstedt, HQ Company D, 3rd Mil Govt Regiment, Welfare-Refugee Section, OMG Bavaria, “Weekly Report for Week Ending 30 August 1947,” August 30, 1947, OMG, PW & DP Branch, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 130; memorandum by Alfred J. Bach, Intelligence Detachment Heilbronn, OMG Württemberg-Baden, to Chief, Information Control Division, OMG Württemberg, December 3, 1946, OMG, Records of the Civil Administration Division, PW & DP Branch: Records Relating to Expellees in the U.S. Zone, 1945–49, RG 260/390/42/26/1-2, box 187, “Psychological conditions–Buchen (Expellees)” file, NARA.
54. Landesrat Oberzaucher, Graz, to Major E. J. Taylor, H.Q. Land Steiermark, Displaced Persons Section, n.d. (c. March 1947), FO 1020/2748.
55. Information Control Division report no. 81, “German Reactions to Expellees and DPs,” December 3, 1947, OMG, Records of the Civil Administration Division, PW & DP Branch: Records Relating to Expellees in the U.S. Zone, 1945–49, RG 260/390/42/26/1-2, box 187, “Military Surveys (Expellees)” file, NARA.
56. For an example, see A. R. Seipp, “Refugee Town: Germans, Americans, and the Uprooted in Rural West Germany, 1945–52,” Journal of Contemporary History 44:4 (October 2007): 675–695.
57. OMGUS draft memorandum, “Expellees,” February 8, 1947, OMG, OMGUS Surveys Branch, Information Control Division, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 128, NARA.
58. Information Control Division report no. 81, “German Reactions to Expellees and DPs,” December 3, 1947, OMG, Records of the Civil Administration Division, PW & DP Branch: Records Relating to Expellees in the U.S. Zone, 1945–49, RG 260/390/42/26/1-2, box 187, “Military Surveys (Expellees)” file, NARA.
59. G. Weisz, to Director, Civil Administration Division, April 28, 1949, OMG, PW & DP Branch, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 127, “Chronological File of Outgoing Correspondence” file, NARA.
60. Memorandum by H. Parkman, Director, Civil Administration Division, June 25, 1946; Clay to Parkman, June 27, 1946, OMG, Records of the Civil Administration Division, PW & DP Branch: Records Relating to Expellees in the U.S. Zone, 1945–49, RG 260./390/42/26/1-2, box 190, “Expellees Political Activity” file, NARA.
61. Text of “Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen,” August 5, 1950, Bundeskanzleramt records, B 136/9087, BAK.
62. Economic Cooperation Administration, The Integration of Refugees into German Life: A Report of the ECA Technical Assistance Commission on the Integration of the Refugees in the German Republic Submitted to the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, March 21, 1951 (Bonn, n.p., n.d., 1951).
63. P. Ahonen, After the Expulsion: West Germany and Eastern Europe 1945–1990 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 30.
64. A. Crawley, The Spoils of War: The Rise of Western Germany 1945–1972 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973), p. 190.
65. Kossert, Kalte Heimat, p. 100.
66. M. L. Hughes, Shouldering the Burdens of Defeat: West Germany and the Reconstruction of Social Justice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 179.
67. Ahonen, After the Expulsion, p. 278.
68. Quoted in Kossert, Kalte Heimat, p. 172.
69. G. Weisz, to Director, Civil Administration Division, April 28, 1949, OMG, PW & DP Branch, RG 260/390/42/24–25/7–1, box 127, “Chronological File of Outgoing Correspondence” file, NARA.
70. Ahonen, After the Expulsion, pp. 273–4.
71. P. Ther, Deutsche und polnische Vertriebene: Gesellschaft und Vertr
iebenenpolitik in der SBZ/DDR und in Polen 1945–1956 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998), p. 162.
72. Quoted in Völklein, “Mitleid war von niemand zu erwarten,” p. 61.
73. Sir W. Strang to J. Troutbeck, November 15, 1945; same to same, November 27, 1945, FO 371/46978; same to same, March 6, 1946; same to same, April 18, 1946, FO 1049/508.
74. Connor, Refugees and Expellees in Post-War Germany, p. 205.
75. Ther, Deutsche und Polnische Vertriebene, p. 212. See also M. Schwartz, “Lastenausgleich: Ein Problem der Vertriebenenpolitik im doppelten Deutschland,” in M. Krauss, ed., Integrationen: Vertriebene in den deutschen Ländern nach 1945 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008), pp. 167–193.
76. A. Bauerkämper, “Assimilationspolitik und Integrationsdynamik: Vertriebene in der SBZ/DDR in vergleichender Perspektive,” ibid., pp. 27–8.
77. N. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 157.
78. Ther, “Expellee Policy in the Soviet-Occupied Zone and the GDR,” pp. 64–5.
79. M. Schwartz, “Staatsfeind ‘Umsiedler,’” in S. Auer and S. Burgdorff, eds., Die Flucht: Über die Vertreibung der Deutschen aus dem Osten (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2002), p. 211.
80. Quoted in Naimark, The Russians in Germany, p. 159.
81. Ther, “Expellee Policy in the Soviet-Occupied Zone and the GDR,” p. 71.
82. I. Connor, “German Expellees in the SBZ/GDR and the ‘Peace Border,’” in A. Good-body, P. Ó Dochartaigh, et al., eds., Dislocation and Reorientation: Exile, Division and the End of Communism in German Culture and Politics (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009), p. 169.
83. Ther, “Expellee Policy in the Soviet-Occupied Zone and the GDR,” p. 62.
84. Kossert, Kalte Heimat, p. 223.
85. Krauss, “Integrationen: Fragen, Thesen, Perspektiven zu einer vergleichenden Vertriebenenforschung,” in Krauss, Integrationen, 11.
CHAPTER 12. THE LAW
1. European Parliament, “Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union,” 2007/C 303/01, Official Journal of the European Union, December 14, 2007, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:303:0001:0016:EN:PDF.
2. “Statement of President Václav Klaus on the Ratification of the Lisbon Treaty,” October 9, 2009, http://www.hrad.cz/en/president-of-the-cr/current-president-of-the-cr-vaclav-klaus/selected-speeches-and-interviews/96.shtml.
3. T. W. Waters, “Remembering Sudetenland: On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing,” Virginia Journal of International Law 47:1 (Autumn 2006): 105; J. Rupnik, “Joining Europe Together or Separately? The Implications of the Czecho-Slovak Divorce for EU Enlargement,” in J. Rupnik and J. Zielonka, eds., The Road to the European Union, vol. 1: The Czech and Slovak Republics (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), p. 48 n. 61.
4. H. Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis, book II, chap. 20.
5. Quoted in S. L. Goldenberg, “Crimes Against Humanity—1945–1970: A Study in the Making and Unmaking of International Criminal Law,” Western Ontario Law Review 10:1 (1971): 5. Emphasis in original.
6. The Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, the Protocol Annexed Thereto … Signed at Versailles, June 28th, 1919 (London: HMSO, 1919), art. 228.
7. S. Power, “A Problem from Hell”: America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002), p. 491.
8. D. M. Segesser, “‘Unlawful Warfare Is Uncivilised’: The International Debate on the Punishment of War Crimes, 1872–1918,” European Review of History 14:2 (June 2007): 216.
9. See G. Hankel, Die Leipziger Prozesse: Deutsche Kriegsverbrechen und ihre strafrechtliche Verfolgung nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Hamburg: HIS Verlag, 2003).
10. W. Czapliński, “The Protection of Minorities under International Law (Comments on the Alleged Existence of a German Minority in Poland),” Polish Western Affairs 25:1 (1984): 126.
11. M. Mazower, “The Strange Triumph of Human Rights, 1933–1950,” Historical Journal 47:2 (June 2004): 382–383.
12. F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 616.
13. Ibid., p. 410.
14. E. Beneš, Odsun Němců: Výbor z pamětí a projevů doplněný ediĉními přílohami (Prague: Spoleĉnost Edvarda Beneše, 1995), p. 22. See also, e.g., S. Sierpowski, “Les dilemmes à la Société des Nations au sujet des minorités,” Polish Western Affairs 25:2 (1984): 187–210; J. Zarnowski, “Le système de protection des minorités et la Pologne,” Acta Poloniae Historica 52:1 (1985): 105–124.
15. P. B. Finney, “‘An Evil for All Concerned’: Great Britain and Minority Protection After 1919,” Journal of Contemporary History 30:3 (July 1995): 542.
16. H. Ripka, The Future of the Czechoslovak Germans (London: Czechoslovak-British Friendship Club, 1944), p. 18.
17. “Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on the Transfer of German Populations,” May 12, 1944, A.P.W. (44) 34, CAB 121/85.
18. Telegram from British delegation, San Francisco Conference on International Organisation, to Foreign Office, May 16, 1945, FO 371/50843.
19. CICR, “Draft International Convention on the Condition and Protection of Civilians of Enemy Nationality who are on Territory Belonging to or Occupied by a Belligerent,” 1934, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/320?OpenDocument.
20. P. Thornberry, International Law and the Rights of Minorities (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 72.
21. Ibid., p. 113.
22. Minute by J. D. Mabbott, Foreign Office Research Department, June 8, 1945, FO 371/50843.
23. The Times, January 14, 1942.
24. Ibid., October 20, 1942.
25. Goldenberg, “Crimes Against Humanity–1945–1970,” pp. 5–9.
26. E. Schwelb, “Crimes Against Humanity,” British Yearbook of International Law 23 (1946): 206.
27. Whether crimes against humanity exist in law independently of international armed conflict remains disputed. For a discussion of this question, see W. A. Schabas, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court, 3d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 98–103.
28. C. Anderson, Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1945–1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 133.
29. Quoted in Thornberry, International Law and the Rights of Minorities, pp. 231–2.
30. Quoted ibid., p. 72. See also J. Cooper, Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
31. W. A. Schabas, “‘Ethnic Cleansing’ and Genocide: Similarities and Distinctions,” in European Yearbook of Minority Issues, vol. 3 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), pp. 118–120.
32. International Institute of Humanitarian Law, Report of the Working Group on Mass Expulsion (San Remo, International Institute of Humanitarian Law, 1983), p. 5.
33. Quoted in A. Aust, Handbook of International Law, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 10.
34. See J.-M. Henckaerts, Mass Expulsion in Modern International Law and Practice (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995), esp. pp. 8–45.
35. Thornberry, International Law and the Rights of Minorities, p. 240.
36. A.-M. de Zayas, “An Historical Survey of Twentieth Century Expulsions,” in A. C. Bramwell, ed., Refugees in the Age of Total War (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 32.
37. E. Barkan, The Guilt of Nations: Restitution and Negotiating Historical Injustices (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 135.
38. Quoted in T. W. Ryback, “Dateline Sudetenland: Hostages to History,” Foreign Policy 105 (Winter 1996–97): 173.
39. Malik v. Czech Republic, Communication No. 669/1995, U. N. Doc. CCPR/ C/64/D/669/1995 (November 3, 1998).
40. United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. “General Comment No. 18: Non-Discriminatio
n,” October 11, 1989, http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/3888b0541f8501c9c12563ed004b8d0e?Opendocument.
41. I. S. Pogány, “International Human Rights Law, Reparatory Justice and the Re-Ordering of Memory in Central and Eastern Europe,” Human Rights Law Review 10:3 (2010): 422. Emphasis in original.
42. P. Macklem, “Rybná 9, Praha 1: Restitution and Memory in International Human Rights Law,” European Journal of International Law 16:1 (February 2005): 18.
43. United Nations, Human Rights Committee, Selected Decisions of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, vol. 8 (New York: United Nations Publications, 2007), pp. 78–84.
44. European Court of Human Rights, Fourth Section, “Decision as to the Admissibility of Application no. 47550/06 by Preussische Treuhand GmbH & Co., KG A. A. against Poland,” October 7, 2008, http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=841872&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=F69A27FD8FB86142BF01C1166DEA398649.
45. European Parliament, Directorate-General for Research, Legal Opinion on the Beneš-Decrees and Accession of the Czech Republic to the European Union, PE 323.934 (October 2002), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/activities/committees/studies/download.do?language=en&file=26119#search=%20%20%22legal%20opinion%20on%20 the%20benes-decrees%22%20.
46. D. Blumenwitz, “Standards for the Political Handling of Dealings Concerning Property after World War II,” in G. Loibi, ed., Austrian Review of International and European Law 2001, vol. 6 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003), p. 189.
47. S. Auer, “Slovakia: From Marginalization of Ethnic Minorities to Political Participation (and Back?),” in B. Rechel, ed., Minority Rights in Central and Eastern Europe (Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2009), p. 201.
48. Pogány, “International Human Rights Law,” 422.
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