Pythagoras: His Life and Teaching, a Compendium of Classical Sources

by Wasserman, James

  He who kept silence heard what was said by others, but was not allowed either to question, if he understood not, or to write down what he heard.293 None kept silence less than two years. Agellius adds that those within the time of silence and hearing were called Acoustici. But when they had learned these things (the most difficult of all to hold their peace and to hear) and were now grown learned in silence, which they called [“restraining speech”]—then they were allowed to speak, and to question, and to write what they heard and what they conceived. At this time they were called Mathematici, from those arts which they then began to learn and to mediate. Thus says Agellus, although how rightly I question. For Mathematici and Acousmatici were distinctive appellations of the Pythagoreans, not in probation but after admission, as we shall see hereafter.

  Thus Apuleius says Pythagoras taught nothing to his disciples before silence. And that the first meditation for one who meant to become a wise man was wholly to refrain the tongue of words—those words which the poets call “winged,” to pluck off the feathers and to confine them within the walls of our teeth.294 This was the first rudiment of wisdom, to learn to meditate, and to unlearn to talk.

  CHAPTER 5

  ABSTINENCE, TEMPERANCE, AND OTHER WAYS OF PURIFICATION

  Moreover, he commanded them to abstain from all foods that had life, and from certain other meats also which obstruct the clearness of the understanding.295 And for the same end (viz. in order to aid the inquisition and apprehension of the most difficult theorems), he likewise commanded them to abstain from wine; to eat little; to sleep little; to show a careless contempt of honor, riches, and the like; to offer an unfeigned respect towards kindred—sincere equality and kindness towards such as were of the same age, and a propensity to further the younger without envy.

  In fine, he procured to his disciples a conversation with the gods by visions and dreams—which never happen to a soul disturbed with anger or pleasure, or any other unbefitting transportation, or with impurity, or rigid ignorance.296 He cleansed and purified the soul divinely from all these; and enkindled the divine part in her and preserved her; and directed in her that intellectual divine eye which is better, as Plato says, than a thousand eyes of flesh. For by the help of this only, truth is apprehended.297 After this manner he procured purification of the intellect. And such was his form of institution as to those things.

  Diodorus says they had an exercise of temperance that worked in the following manner.298 There being prepared and set before them all sorts of delicate food, they looked upon it a good while; and after their appetites were fully provoked by the sight thereof, they commanded it to be taken off and given to the servants.299 They themselves went away without dining. This they did, says Iamblichus, to punish their appetite.

  CHAPTER 6

  COMMUNITY OF ESTATES

  In this time, all that they had (that is their whole estate) was made common, that is, put together communally.300 They brought forth, says Aulus Gellius, whatsoever they had of stock or money and constituted an inseparable society, as being that ancient way of association which truly is termed [“life in community”].301 This was given up to such of the disciples as were appointed for that purpose. These were called Politici and Economici, as being persons fit to govern a family and to give laws.

  This was conformable to the precepts of Pythagoras (as Timeus affirms): first all common amongst friends; and friendship, equality;302 and, esteem nothing your own. By this means he exterminated all propriety and increased community even to their last possessions. He sought thus to eliminate possessions as a cause of dissension and trouble; for, since all things were common amongst them, no man had a propriety to anything.303

  But what Aulus Gellius terms an “inseparable society” is to be understood only conditionally. If someone misliked this community, he took again his own estate, and more than that which he brought into the community, and departed.304

  CHAPTER 7

  ADMISSION OR REJECTION

  They who appeared worthy to participate of his doctrines—judging by their lives and moderation after their five years silence—were made Esoterics and admitted to hear Pythagoras within the screen and to see him.305 But before that time, they heard him discourse, being on the outside of the screen, and not seeing him—given a long time experiment of their proper manners by hearing only.

  But if they were rejected, they received their estate double, and a tomb was made by the disciples as if they had been dead. For so all that were about Pythagoras spoke of them; and when they met them, behaved themselves towards them as if they had been some other persons; but the men themselves they said were dead.

  CHAPTER 8

  DISTINCTION

  Whatsoever he discoursed to those that came to him, he declared either plainly or symbolically (for he had a twofold form of teaching). And of those who came to him, some were called Mathematici, others Acousmatici.306 The Mathematici were those who learned the fuller and more exactly elaborate reason of science. The Acousmatici were they who heard only the chief heads of learning without more exact explication.

  Thus, as there were two kinds of Philosophy, so were there two sorts of those who studied philosophy.307 The Acousmatici did confess that the Mathematici were Pythagoreans. But the Mathematici did not acknowledge that the Acousmatici were Pythagoreans; for they had their learning, not from Pythagoras, but from Hippasus; who, some say, was of Crotona, others of Metapontium.

  The philosophy of the Acousmatici consists of doctrines without demonstrations and reasons; rather being told that this is how it must be done and the like. These they were to observe as so many divine doctrines, and they did esteem those amongst them the wisest who had most of these Acousmata. Now Acousmata were divided into three kinds: some tell what something is; others tell what is most such a thing; the third sort tell what is to be done and what not.

  Those that tell what a thing is are of this kind: as what is the Island of the Blessed? The Sun? the Moon? What is the Oracle at Delphi? The Tetractys? What is the Music of the Syrens?

  Those which tell what is most such as: What is most just? To sacrifice. What is the wisest? Number, and in the next place that which gave names to things. What is the wisest amongst us? Medicine. What the most beautiful? Harmony. What the most powerful? Reason. What the best? Beatitude. What the truest? That men are wicked. For which (they say) he commended Hippodamas, a Poet of Salamis, who said,

  O Gods! whence are you? How so good? so Blessed?

  O Men! whence are you? How with ill possessed?

  These, and such like, are the Acousmata of this kind. For every one of these tells what is most. The same it is with that which is called the “wisdom of the seven sages.” For they enquired not what is good, but what is most good; not what is difficult, but what is most difficult (which is to know ourselves); not what is facile, but what is most facile (which is the custom of nations). Those Acousmata seem to follow this kind of wisdom for those sages were before Pythagoras.

  The Acousmata which tell what is to be done, or what is not to be done, are thus: As that we ought to beget children, for we must leave behind us such as may serve the gods in our stead; or, that we ought to put off the right shoe first; or, that we ought not to go in the common road, and the like. Such were the Acousmata. But those which have had the most said about them are concerning sacrifices: at what times, and after what manner they are to be performed; and concerning removal from our place of habitation; and concerning sepulture, how we must bury the dead.

  For some, there is a reason given. As that we ought to get children, that we may leave in our room another servant of the gods. But of others there is no reason. And in some, that which follows the precept seems to be allied to the words; but in others is wholly distant. An example is that we ought not to break bread, because it conduces to judgment in Hell. But the reasons that are applied to these are not Pythagorean, but given by some other who studied Pythagorean learning, endeavoring to apply some probable conjecture to th
em. As of the last mentioned, that bread is not to be broken, some say: He who gathers together, ought not to dissolve. For anciently all friends used after a barbarous manner to meet at one loaf; others, that you must not give so bad an omen as when you are going about anything to break it off.

  But there was one Hippomedon, an Agrinean,308 a Pythagorean of the Acousmatic rank, who said that Pythagoras gave reasons and demonstrations of all these things. But because they were delivered by tradition through many, and those still growing more idle, that the reasons were taken away, and the problems only left.

  Now the mathematical Pythagoreans grant all this to be true, but the occasion of the difference they say was this. Pythagoras went from Ionia and Samos, during Polycrates's reign, to Italy, which was then in a flourishing condition, and where the chief persons of the cities became conversant with him. To the most ancient of these, and such as had least leisure (because they were taken up with public employments, so that it would be very hard for them to learn mathematics and demonstrations), he discoursed barely. He conceived it did nothing less advantage them, even without the causes, to know what they had to do—as patients, not enquiring why such things are prescribed them, nevertheless obtain health. But to the younger, who were able to act and learn, he imparted by demonstrations and mathematics. The Mathematici professed that they came from these; the Acousmatici from the others, chiefly from Hippasus who was one of the Pythagoreans. But because Hippasus published their doctrine and first wrote of the sphere of twelve pentagons, he died in the sea as an impious person, not obtaining the same at which he aimed.

  CHAPTER 9

  HOW THEY DISPOSED THE DAY

  We shall next speak concerning those things which he taught them in the day. For according to his directions, thus did they who were taught by him.309

  These men performed their morning walks by themselves, and in such places where they might be exceeding quiet and retired. These were temples and groves and other delightful places. For they thought it was not fit they should speak with anyone till they had first composed their souls and fitted their intellect—and that such quiet was requisite for the composure of their intellect. For as soon as they arose, to intrude among the people they thought a tumultuous thing. Therefore all the Pythagoreans ever made choice of the most sacred places.

  After their morning walk, they came to one another chiefly in the temples, or in some such places. They made use of these times for doctrines and disciplines, and rectifications of their manners.

  After they had studied awhile, they went to their morning exercises. The greater part used to anoint themselves and run races; the fewer, to wrestle in orchards and in groves. Some by throwing sledges, or by grappling hands, to make trial of their strength—choosing such exercises as they judged most convenient for them.

  At dinner they used bread and honey. Wine after meals they drunk not. The time after dinner they employed in political affairs—as well foreign as domestic, according to the injunction of their laws; for they endeavored to manage everything in the afternoons.

  As soon as the evening came, they betook themselves again, not singly as in their morning walks, but two or three walked together, repeating the doctrines they had learnt and exercising themselves in virtuous employments. After their walks, they used baths and washing. Having washed, they met together to eat; but they did not eat together more than ten persons. As soon as they who were to come together were met, they used libations and sacrifices of meal and frankincense. Then they went to supper, that they might end it before the Sun were set. They used wine, and grain, and bread, and broth, and herbs, both raw and boiled. They likewise set before them the flesh of such beasts as used to be sacrificed. They seldom ate broths of fish, because some of them are in some respects very hurtful; likewise (seldom) the flesh of such creatures as use not to hurt mankind.

  After supper they offered libations, then had lectures. Their custom was that the youngest amongst them should read, and the eldest should, as president, order what and how he should read. When they were to depart, he who filled the wine poured forth to them in libation. And during the libation, the eldest of them declared these things: that none should hurt or kill a domestic plant or fruit; besides, that they should speak well and think reverently of the gods, daemons, and heroes; likewise to think well of parents and benefactors; to assist law and oppose rebellion. This said, everyone departed to his house.

  They wore a white and clean garment; they had also coverlets—white and clean—of linen; for they used not any of skins, because they approved not the exercise of hunting.310

  These were the traditions that were delivered to that society of men, partly concerning diet (of which hereafter more particularly), partly concerning the course of life.

  CHAPTER 10

  HOW THEY EXAMINED THEIR ACTIONS MORNING AND EVENING

  These and all other actions of the day they contrived in the morning before they rose, and examined at night before they slept; thus, by a twofold act, exercising the memory.311 They conceived that it was requisite to retain and preserve in memory all which they learned; and that lessons and doctrines should be so far acquired as they are able to remember what they have learned; for that is it which they ought to know and bear in mind. For this reason they cherished memory much, and exercised it, and took great care of it; and in learning they gave not over until they had gotten their lesson perfectly by heart.

  A Pythagorean rose not out of bed before he had called to mind the actions of the day past, which recollection he performed in this manner. He endeavored to call to mind what he first had either heard or given in charge to his servants as soon as he rose; and what in the second place, and what in the third, and so on in the same order. And then for his going forth, whom he met first, whom next; and what discourses he had with the first, what with the second, what with the third, and so of the rest; for he endeavored to repeat in memory all that happened throughout the whole day in order as it happened. And if at their up-rising they had more leisure, then after the same manner they endeavored to recollect all that happened to them for three days before. Thus they chiefly exercised the memory.312 For they conceived that nothing conduces more to science, experience, and prudence than to remember many things.

  This was conformable to the institution of Pythagoras. For he advised to have regard chiefly to two times: that when we went to sleep, and that when we rose from sleep. At each of these we ought to consider what actions are past, and what to come.313 Of the past, we ought to require an account of ourselves; of the future, we ought to have a providential care. Wherefore he advised everyone to repeat to himself these verses as soon as he came home or before he slept.314

  Nor suffer sleep at night to close thine eyes,

  Till thrice thy acts that day thou hast reviewed,

  How slipped? what deeds? what duty left undone?

  And before they arose, these:

  As soon as thou wakest, in order lay

  The actions to be done that following day.

  To this effect, Ausonius has a Pythagorean Discourse as he terms it.

  A good wise person, such as hardly one

  Of many thousands to Apollo known,

  He his own judge strictly himself surveys,

  Nor minds the Noble's or the Common's ways:

  But, like the world itself, is smooth and round,

  In all his polished frame no blemish found.

  He thinks how long Cancer the day extends,

  And Capricorn the night. Himself perpends

  In a just balance, that no flaw where be,

  Nothing exuberant, but that all agree;

  Within that all be solid, nothing by

  A hollow sound betray vacuity.

  Nor suffer sleep to seize his eyes, before

  All acts of that long day he has run o're;

  What things were missed, what done in time, what not;

  Why here respect, or reason there forgot;

  Why kept the worse opinio
n? when reliev'd

  A beggar; why with broken passion griev'd;

  What wish'd which had been better not desir'd;

  Why profit before honesty requir'd?

  If any by some speech or look offended,

  Why nature more than discipline attended?

  All words & deeds thus searched from morn to night,

  He sorrows for the ill, rewards the right.

  CHAPTER 11

  SECRECY

  Besides the quinquennial silence, ,† of the Pythagoreans while they were Exoterics, there was another termed , a perpetual or complete silence (or secrecy) proper to the Esoterics—not amongst one another, but towards all such as were not of their society.

  The principal and most efficacious of their doctrines they all kept ever amongst themselves as not to be spoken, with exact Echemythia towards extraneous persons; continuing them unwritten and preserved only by memory to their successors, to whom they delivered them as mysteries of the gods. By which means, nothing of any moment came abroad from them.315 What had been taught and learned for a long time, was only known within the walls; and, if at any time there were any extraneous, and as I may say, profane persons amongst them, the Men (so commonly were the Pythagoreans termed) expressed their meaning to one another by Symbols.

  Hence Lysis, reproving Hipparchus for communicating the discourse to uninitiated persons void of mathematics and theory, says:

  They report, that you teach philosophy in public to all that come, which Pythagoras would not do, as you, Hipparchus, learned with much pains.316 But you took no heed after you had tasted (O noble person) the Sicilian delicacies, which you ought not to have tasted a second time. If you are changed, I shall rejoice. If not, you are dead to me; for he said, “We ought to remember, that it is pious, according to the direction of divine and human exhortations, that the goods of wisdom ought not to be communicated to those whose soul is not purified so much as in dream.”