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10. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Instructions to the Missionaries About to Embark for the Sandwich Island: And to the Rev. Messrs. William Goodell and Isaac Bird, Attached to the Palestine Mission (Boston: Crocker and Brewster, 1823); James Madison, “Notes for a Speech to Indian Tribes,” 1812, General Correspondence, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress; John A. Andrew III, From Revivals to Removal: Jeremiah Evarts, the Cherokee Nation, and the Search for the Soul of America (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 99–100, 113–25; A Narrative of Five Youth from the Sandwich Islands, Now Receiving an Education in This Country (New York: J. Seymour, 1816), 7–29; L. Vernon Briggs, History and Genealogy of the Cabot Family, 1475–1927 (Boston: Charles E. Goodspeed, 1927), II:525; William Elliot Griffis, A Maker of the New Orient: Samuel Robbins Brown, Pioneer Educator in China, America, and Japan: The Story of His Life and Work (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1902), 57–62; Yung Wing, My Life in China and America (New York: Henry Holt, 1909); also see Amy Bangerter, “The New Englandization of Yung Wing: Family, Nation, Region,” in Monica Chiu, ed., Asian Americans in New England: Culture and Community (Lebanon: University of New Hampshire Press, 2009), 42–60; Bernd C. Peyer, The Tutor’d Mind: Indian Missionary-Writers in Antebellum America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 177–79; Constance K. Escher, “She Calls Herself Betsey Stockton,” Princeton History, 1991, 98–102; “Betsey Stockton” clipping file, New York State Historical Association.
11. The society’s formal name was the “American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color in the United States.” Douglas Egerton has persuasively argued that Charles Fenton Mercer was the originator of the African colonization plan. Jared Sparks, A Historical Outline of the American Colonization Society, and Remarks on the Advantages and Practicability of Colonizing in Africa the Free People of Color from the United States (Boston: O. Everett, 1824), 5–6; Rev. Isaac V. Brown, A.M., Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D., Late Pastor of the Presbyterian Congregation at Basking Ridge, New Jersey, and President of Franklin College, Located at Athens, in the State of Georgia, with Brief Sketches of Some of His Contemporaries, and Numerous Notes (New Brunswick, NJ: Terhune and Letson, 1819), 75–77; “Address of the American Colonization Society to the People of the United States,” Christian Herald, 13 September 1817; General Charles Fenton Mercer’s history of the origins of the ACS, African Repository and Colonial Journal, November 1833; Douglas R. Egerton, “‘Its Origin Is Not a Little Curious’: A New Look at the American Colonization Society,” Journal of the Early Republic, Winter 1985, 463–480; Lacy K. Ford, Deliver Us from Evil: The Slavery Question in the Old South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 70–72; Hampton Lawrence Carson, The History of the Supreme Court of the United States; with Biographies of All the Chief and Associate Justices (Philadelphia: P. W. Ziegler, 1891–92), II:630–31.
Liberia would be America’s Sierra Leone. About 1786 men of rank in London, frustrated with what they saw as the growing presence and poverty of black people in the city, launched a campaign to colonize Africa. In its initial phase it brought four hundred black Britons to the African coast along with about sixty white English, mostly women of poor health and “bad character.” Grants of land were secured from the neighboring chiefs and a captain in the Royal Navy transported the settlers. Slaving wars threatened the original encampment and caused the colonists to flee. A year later, only sixty-four settlers remained. While this first venture failed, the commitment to removing black people survived. Substance of the Report of the Court of Directors of the Sierra Leone Company to the General Court, Held at London on Wednesday the 19th of October, 1791 (London: James Phillips, 1791), 3–8; Reasons Against Giving a Territorial Grant to a Company of Merchants, to Colonize and Cultivate the Peninsula of Sierra Leona, on the Coast of Africa [a handwritten note on the title page gives the author’s name as “Mr. Campbel”] (London, 1791), 2–7, collection of the British Library.
12. Donna L. Akers, Living in the Land of Death: The Choctaw Nation, 1830–1860 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 10–22; Peyer, Tutor’d Mind, 173–74; Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 5–11; James Monroe, Second Inaugural Address, 5 March 1821.
13. “Message of the President of the United States, to Both Houses of Congress, at the Commencement of the Second Session of the Twenty-first Congress,” 7 December 1830; Ronald N. Satz, Tennessee’s Indian Peoples from White Contact to Removal, 1540–1840 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979), 36–43; Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears (New York: Penguin, 2007), 42–68.
14. “An Act to Provide for an Exchange of Lands with the Indians Residing in Any of the States or Territories, and for Their Removal West of the River Mississippi,” 28 May 1830; Perdue and Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears, 44; The Cherokee Nation vs. the State of Georgia, Supreme Court of the United States, 18 March 1831; Wallace, Long, Bitter Trail, 50–56. On Jackson’s history with Indian warfare, land policy, and removal, also see Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (New York: Viking, 2001).
15. “Miscellanies,” The Missionary Herald, August 1824; First Report of the New-York Colonization Society (New York: J. Seymour, 1823); Andrew, Revivals to Removal, 113–25.
16. Speech of Mr. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, Delivered in the Senate of the United States, April 6, 1830, on the Bill for an Exchange of Lands with the Indians Residing in Any of the States or Territories, and for Their Removal West of the Mississippi (Washington, DC: Office of the National Journal, 1830), 3–15.
17. Josiah Quincy, “Remarks on the Visit of President Andrew Jackson to Harvard University, 1834,” Papers of Josiah Quincy, Box 6, Harvard University Archives; Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 97–115; Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1991), 206–48; Ronald N. Satz, “Rhetoric Versus Reality: The Indian Policy of Andrew Jackson,” in William L. Anderson, ed., Cherokee Removal: Before and After (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 36–44; Tim Alan Garrison, The Legal Ideology of Removal: The Southern Judiciary and the Sovereignty of Native American Nations (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002), 1–13; Gary E. Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1978), 42–44.
18. Speech of Mr. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey … April 6, 1830, 4–13; Speech of Mr. Everett, of Massachusetts, in the House of Representatives, on the 14th and 21st of February, 1831, on the Execution of the Laws and Treaties in Favor of the Indian Tribes (Washington, DC, 1831), 18–19.
19. Everett’s signed copy is in the collection at Widener Library, Harvard University. Speech of Mr. Everett, of Massachusetts … on the 14th and 21st of February, 1831, 1–8; Speech of Mr. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey … April 6, 1830, 23–24; Louis P. Masur, 1831: Year of Eclipse (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001), 118–19.
20. Speech of Mr. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey … April 6, 1830, 7, 23–25; Speech of Mr. Everett, of Massachusetts … on the 14th and 21st of February, 1831, 9.
21. The inscription reads: “Hon. Josiah Quincy with the best respects of his obliged friend, Elliott Cresson, Phila June 1830.” See Report of the Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Colonization Society, with an Appendix (Philadelphia: Thomas Kite, 1830), 47, Widener Library, Harvard University; African Repository and Colonial Journal, January 1834, March 1836.
22. W.L.G., “To the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen: On Reading His Eloquent Speech in Defence of Indian Rights,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, July 1830; Nile’s Weekly Register, 19 February 1831; The Religious Intelligencer, 24 April 1830, 8 May 1830; Liberator, 25 December 1840; “Congressional Temperance Society,” New York Observer and Chronicle, 9 March 1833; “First Anniversary of the New York Prison Association,” Rural
Repository, 17 December 1845; Episcopal Recorder, 28 May 1831. On Garrison’s relationship to the ACS, see William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization: Or an Impartial Exhibition of the Doctrines, Principles, and Purposes of the American Colonization Society. Together with the Resolutions, Addresses and Remonstrances of the Free People of Color (Boston: Garrison and Knapp, 1832); Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998).
23. Theodore Frelinghuysen, An Oration: Delivered at Princeton, New Jersey, Nov. 16, 1824, Before the New-Jersey Colonization Society, by the Honourable Theodore Frelinghuysen (Princeton: D. A. Borrenstein, 1824), 6–14.
24. Frelinghuysen, An Oration: Delivered at Princeton, New Jersey, Nov. 16, 1824, 8–9; County Tax Ratables, Somerset County, Eastern Precinct, 1784–1796, New Jersey State Archives; Richard A. Harrison, Princetonians, 1769–1775: A Biographical Dictionary (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 78–83.
25. Frelinghuysen, An Oration: Delivered at Princeton, New Jersey, Nov. 16, 1824, 9; “Unauthorized Transformation,” African Repository and Colonial Journal, May 1835; Liberator, 11 April 1835; Samuel E. Cornish and Theodore S. Wright, The Colonization Scheme Considered, in Its Rejection by the Colored People—in Its Tendency to Uphold Caste—in Its Unfitness for Christianizing and Civilizing the Aborigines of Africa, and for Putting a Stop to the African Slave Trade: In a Letter to the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen and the Hon Benjamin F. Butler; by Samuel E. Cornish and Theodore S. Wright, Pastors of the Colored Presbyterian Churches in the Cities of Newark and New York (Newark: Aaron Guest, 1840); Letter of the Honorable William Jay, to the Hon. Theo. Frelinghuysen (New York, 1844), 3.
26. Henry Watson Jr., “Notes of Lectures on Ancient History by Charles Follen … 1829,” in Henry Watson Jr. Lecture Notes, 1829, I:192–94, Rare Books and Special Collections, Neilson Library, Smith College.
27. Malcolm H. Stern, First American Jewish Families: 600 Genealogies, 1654–1977 (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1978), 175; Thomas, Columbia University Officers and Alumni, 1754–1857, 200; Peter August Jay to the president of the American Society for Ameliorating the Condition of the Jews, 10 November 1822, Jay Family Papers, New-York Historical Society; Catalogue of the Governors, Trustees and Officers, and of the Alumni and Other Graduates, of Columbia College (Originally King’s College) in the City of New York, 14; Cadwallader D. Colden’s address for the New York Manumission Society, Genius of Universal Emancipation, 25 November 1826; Jacob Rutsen Van Rens[s]elaer to John R. Murray, 7 May 1823, and Hezekiah B. Pierpont to John R. Murray and R. Milford Blatchford, 19 May 1823, in “Lands Offered for Sale to the American Society for Ameliorating the Condition of the Jews—1823,” Misc. Mss. Jews, New-York Historical Society.
In 1823 Annibale della Genga became the spiritual leader of the Roman Catholic Church and, as Pope Leo XII, ordered Jews to return to the ghettos. Leo sought to end what he viewed as unsavory interactions between Jews and Christians in the Papal States by reviving medieval restrictions on the economic, social, and physical mobility of Jews. Leo reestablished compulsory sermons aimed at convincing Jews of the spiritual danger of their faith and the corruption of their religious leaders. The Jewish origin of the Christian savior, David Kertzer explains, prevented Catholic theologians from asserting the racial inferiority of Jews, but the church could and did affirm the central accusations against Jews and embrace core biological images that grounded modern anti-Semitism.
David I. Kertzer, The Popes Against the Jews: The Vatican’s Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism (New York: Knopf, 2001), 60–85, 205–12; Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews: The Medieval Conception of the Jew and Its Relation to Modern Antisemitism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1943), 11–52; Albert S. Lindemann, Esau’s Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 74–96.
28. The Constitution of the Portland Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews; with an Address to the Christian Public; and a Collection of Interesting Facts Relative to the Conversion of the Jews (Portland, ME: Arthur Shirley, 1823), 3–18; A Presbyter of the Church of England, Obligations of Christians to Attempt the Conversion of the Jews (Salem: Warwick Palfray, 1822), 19–20.
29. Speech of Mr. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey … April 6, 1830, 9; Liberator, 12 March 1831, 2 July 1831, 5 November 1831, 17 March 1832; African Repository and Colonial Journal, February 1835, October 1835, 1 March 1841.
30. David Daggett to Jabez W. Huntington, 15 March 1830, Miscellaneous Manuscripts (arranged alphabetically by writer), Connecticut Historical Society.
31. Rev. Griffin led the effort to establish the New York and New Jersey Synod’s school for black youth. Arguing the irrationality of treating a majority of the world’s population as unsuited to Christian uplift and intended only for slavery, the synod looked to extend the blessings of Christianity to Africans and other benighted peoples. The effort rested on a rather sober accounting of the rewards that slavery and the slave trade had provided the Americas. The synod judged the United States in “arrears” to Africa for the slave trade. The school was a step in its incremental move toward colonization as the solution to slavery. The burden of evangelizing Africa, the officers noted, rested on the Americas because the Americas housed the victims of the slave trade. Redemption was, however, in reach: “Africa will yet boast of her poets and orators.”
Philip Milledoler, Address, Delivered to the Graduates of Rutgers College, at Commencement Held in the Reformed Dutch Church, New Brunswick, N.J., July 20, 1831 (New York: Rutgers Press, 1831), 8–15; Frelinghuysen, An Oration: Delivered at Princeton, New Jersey, Nov. 16, 1824, 12; “Unauthorized Transformation,” African Repository and Colonial Journal, May 1835; James Richards and Edward D. Griffin, “African Seminary,” Christian Herald, 9 November 1816; James Richards and Edward D. Griffin, “An Address to the Public,” Religious Remembrancer, 28 December 1816; Elias Boudinot to Rev. Edward Dorr Griffin, 21 July 1804, Elias Boudinot Papers, Box 2, MMC 721, Library of Congress.
As the foreign secretary of the United Foreign Missionary Society, Philip Milledoler had governed missions to the Osage in Missouri for more than a decade, and advised Indian policy in Washington, D.C. An Osage child was named for him. See “New Osage Mission,” Religious Intelligencer, 14 October 1820; “Osage Mission,” Religious Remembrancer, 4 November 1820, 2 August 1823; “Second Mission to the Osages,” Missionary Herald, January 1821; “United Foreign Missionary Society,” Boston Recorder, 1 March 1823.
32. “Speech of the Hon. William W. Ellsworth, Representative of Connecticut, Delivered in the House of Representatives, Sitting as in Committee of the Whole, on the Bill for the Removal of the Indians, Monday, May 17, 1830,” in Jeremiah Evarts, ed., Speeches on the Passage of the Bill for the Removal of the Indians, Delivered in the Congress of the United States, April and May 1830 (Boston: Perkins and Marvin, 1830), 138.
33. Leslie M. Harris, In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626–1863 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Graham Russell Hodges, Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Julie Winch, Philadelphia’s Black Elite: Activism, Accommodation, and the Struggle for Autonomy, 1787–1848 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988); Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); Stephen David Kantrowitz, More than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829–1889 (New York: Penguin, 2012); Adelaide M. Cromwell, The Other Brahmins: Boston’s Black Upper Class, 1750–1950 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994); Robert J. Cottrol, The Afro-Yankees: Providence’s Black Community in the Antebellum Era (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982); William D. Piersen, Black Yankees: The Development of an Afro-American Subculture in Eighteenth Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988)
.
34. Minutes of the Proceedings of the First Annual Convention of the People of Color … from the Sixth to the Eleventh of June, Inclusive, 1831 (Philadelphia: For the Convention, 1831), in Howard Holman Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830–1864 (New York: Arno, 1969).
35. African Repository and Colonial Journal, April 1836; Sparks, Historical Outline of the American Colonization Society. On Milledoler, see note 31.
36. Sparks, Historical Outline of the American Colonization, esp. 52–53.
37. African Repository and Colonial Journal, March 1835; Edward Everett, Address of the Hon. Edward Everett, Secretary of State, at the Anniversary of the Am. Col. Society, 18th Jan., 1853, 4–8.
38. “Professor Stowe on Colonization,” African Repository and Colonial Journal, December 1834; Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1852), II:251, 300–22; Harriet Beecher Stowe, A Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Presenting the Original Facts and Documents upon Which the Story Is Founded (London: Samson Low and Son, 1853), 361.
39. Proceedings of a Meeting Held at Princeton, New-Jersey, July 14, 1824, to Form a Society in the State of New-Jersey, to Cooperate with the American Colonization Society (Princeton: D. A. Borrenstein, 1824), 39–40, New-York Historical Society; Passenger log from the schooner Alligator, MG 49, Ship Logs, 1732–1861, New Jersey Historical Society; Rev. Daniel Coker, “Journal of Daniel Coker, 1821,” 9, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress.