Latin American Folktales

by John Bierhorst

  Cajamarca: the definitive incident of the Peruvian conquest, the execution of the Inca Atahualpa, occurred in this Andean town about halfway between Quito and Cuzco.

  2/IV. A Messenger in Black, tr. and adapted from Pachacuti (the text is to be found four-fifths of the way through this relatively brief chronicle).

  As mentioned above in the introductory note, the epidemic that spread south from Panama is thought to have been typhus (or plague). But “faces covered with scabs” implies smallpox. The final detail is not fantastic; Inca mummies were brought out in litters on ceremonial occasions.

  2/V. The Oracle at Huamachuco, tr. from Sarmiento, ch. 64.

  The idol destroyed by Atahualpa was the statue of the god Catequilla. Its broken pieces were scattered, according to the Relación de la religión y ritos del Perú (written about 1561), which adds further details: “After the arrival of the Christians in this land, there was an Indian woman who had thoughts of Catequilla. A small stone appeared before her; she picked it up and brought it to the grand sorcerer [native priest] and said, ‘I found this stone.’ Then the sorcerer asked the stone, ‘Who are you?’ and the stone, or rather the Devil speaking through the stone, replied, ‘I am Tantaguayani, son of Catequilla.’ ” Thereafter another “son” of Catequilla came to light, and the two were “multiplied” until there were some three hundred throughout the district, promptly established as objects of worship. In a deed recalling the fury of Atahualpa, the Augustinian fathers collected all of these objects and “burned them and smashed them and did away with the sorcerers” (Relación, pp. 25–7).

  3. Bringing Out the Holy Word, translated from the Nahuatl, Bierhorst 1985a, pp. 269–73.

  This catechistic version of holy scripture was prepared by Don Francisco Plácido, Indian gobernador of the town of Xiquipilco (the title “don” here indicates a member of the old Indian nobility). Chanted for the benefit of the town of Azcapotzalco, whose patron saint was the apostle Philip, the piece has a prelude and an envoy (neither of which is included here), greeting the people of Azcapotzalco and, at the end, summoning the ghost of St. Philip. Evidently the catechistic portion is intended to explain how the apostles, including Philip, fit into the history of the world. As an account of the doctrine on which the Latin American folk-Bible cycle is based, it is complete in itself. Compare the folk-Bible stories, nos. 55–73.

  Lords and princes: the Aztec nobility.

  Folktales: A Sixteenth-Century Wake

  [Epigraph]: Los muertos al pozo y los vivos al negocio (Pérez, p. 123).

  [ Introductory Note]: Information on wakes (Reichel-Dolmatoff and Reichel-Dolmatoff 1961, pp. 378–82; Vázquez de Acuña, pp. 45–8; Chapman, pp. 186–95; Lara Figueroa 1981, pp. 112–25; Campa, p. 196; Laughlin 1971; Portal, p. 38; Carvalho-Neto 1961, p. 319). “Ah serene, ah Sir Ron . . .” (Cadilla de Martínez, p. 240).

  4. In the City of Benjamin, tr. from Carvalho-Neto 1994, no. 39. Motif J1185.1 Sheherezade.

  “Benjamin” translates Benjuí, an old Spanish name for the aromatic gum benjamin or benzoin, evidently intended here as a means of transporting the listener to the Orient. The story, clearly, is a variant of the framing tale of the Thousand and One Nights, where it is written that a king named Shahriar was betrayed by his wife while visiting with his brother, whose wife had betrayed him. Concluding that women could not be trusted, Shahriar from then on took a new wife every night, killing her in the morning. After three years people fled with their daughters. Needing a wife, Shahriar ordered his vizier to get him a virgin. The vizier’s elder daughter, Sheherezade, who had read a thousand stories, offered to be the bride, provided she could bring along her younger sister. On the wedding night the sister asked for a story, the king assented, and Sheherezade began her recitation. On the thousand-and-first night, after she had borne three sons, she begged the king to spare her for the children’s sake; he wept and relented.

  The tale that follows also stems from a Near East lineage but moves more decisively into Latin American territory.

  5. Antuco’s Luck, tr. from Saunière, pp. 286–97. Motifs N531 Treasure discovered through dream; H1226.4 Pursuit of rolling ball of yarn leads to quest; N512 Treasure in underground chamber; N813 Helpful genie.

  The blood-red talisman beneath the cross implies the Sacred Heart (mentioned finally by name in story no. 101); here it subdues the genie of Middle Eastern lore in a characteristically Hispanic touch. The realistic locales, including the Alameda in Santiago, as well as the name Antuco, borne by both a town and a volcano in Bío-Bío province, mark this novella-like tale as a Chilean creation. Though the novella may be regarded as a literary form, such tales “are also widely told by the unlettered, especially by the peoples of the Near East; the action occurs in a real world with a definite time and place, and though marvels do appear, they are such as apparently call for the hearer’s belief” (Thompson 1946, p. 8). The story is discussed in the introduction, p. 8. See also the comments to nos. 13 and 51, below.

  6. Don Dinero and Doña Fortuna, tr. from Andrade 1930, no. 269.

  Assignable to AT type 945 Luck and Intelligence, but deserving of a special Hispanic subtype, Money and Luck, reported also from New Mexico (Rael, no. 93). In one of the New Mexican variants the characters are even styled Don Dinero and Doña Fortuna, as here (Brown et al., pp. 140–3).

  7. Mistress Lucía, tr. from Corona, pp. 43–50. AT type 403 The Black and White Bride (California, Chile, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Mexico, New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Europe, India, Middle East).

  Alacrán: lime prickly ash (Zanthoxylum fagara), an old-fashioned remedy for migraine.

  8. St. Peter’s Wishes, tr. from Feijóo 1960, pp. 48–9. AT type 759.

  See comment to no. 27.

  9. The Coyote Teodora, tr. from Izaguirre, pp. 168–70. Motifs G211 Witch in animal form; G266 Witches steal; G271.2.2 Witch exorcised by holy water; G271.4.5 Breaking spell by beating the person or object bewitched.

  One of the most unusual of the Latin American Witch Wife tales. The more familiar types are represented by nos. 30 and 98.

  10. Buried Alive, tr. from Miller, pp. 266–8. AT type 612 The Three Snake-Leaves (California, Mexico, New Mexico, Panama, Europe, India, Middle East).

  The helpful mouse, who drops the flower that revives the wife, is typical of the American versions. In Grimm’s (no. 16) the helper is a snake, who uses three green leaves.

  11. The Three Gowns, tr. from Mason 1925, pp. 572–4. AT type 510B The Dress of Gold, of Silver, and of Stars (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Mexico, New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Europe, India, Middle East).

  The not-so-hidden subtext of this provocative Cinderella tale concerns the parents of the young couple. The girl’s marriage-minded father gets left behind for making his intentions too plain. His more subtle counterpart, the boy’s mother, is less easily separated from her son and, together with her disarming touch of insanity, is incorporated in the new ménage.

  The lion skin, perhaps, is a development from old Spanish versions in which the orphaned heroine has no proper clothes to wear. A modern variant from the Spanish province of Cáceres begins, “Once there was an orphan girl and she went about the world dressed in an animal hide” (Taggart 1990, p. 101).

  12. The Horse of Seven Colors, tr. from Sojo, pp. 183–8. AT type 530 The Princess on the Glass Mountain (Cuba, Mexico, New Mexico, Venezuela, Europe, India, Middle East). With the addition of motifs D1234 Magic guitar; B401 Helpful horse; Q2 Kind and unkind; L13 Compassionate youngest son; S165 Mutilation: putting out eyes; N452 Secret remedy overheard in conversation of animals (witches). The helpful horse appears in Old World variants, but that it must be “of seven colors” is a Latin American requirement.

  A parody of the Cinderella stories, with the sexes reversed, this richly developed tale might have been called “The Three Fancy Suits.” The vanity of the hero as he changes from one dazzling outfit to the next matches Cinderella herself, while the exaggerated cruelty of the two older brothers far outstr
ips the stepsisters of the classic versions. To be compared with nos. 11 and 28.

  13. The Cow, tr. from Rael, no. 55. AT type 1415 Lucky Hans (New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Europe, India, Middle East).

  Compadrazgo, the institution that binds the community, at least in theory, spells trouble in folktales. It is one of the signature themes of Latin American folklore, in which the mere mention of the endearing term of address, compadre, is a signal that someone is about to be victimized or betrayed. In practice, the compadre is the godfather of one’s child; the godfather’s wife is called comadre. Reciprocally, the godparents use the same terms in addressing the child’s parents, establishing a social kinship that implies trust and mutual aid. The story “Antuco’s Luck,” no. 5, is most unusual for treating the relationship without a hint of derision. Typical tales, in addition to no. 13, are nos. 22, 23, 92, 93, 96, and 101. In no. 84 the witches comfortably address each other as comadre.

  14. Death and the Doctor, tr. from Andrade 1930, no. 230. AT type 332 Godfather Death (Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, New Mexico, Panama, Europe, India, Middle East).

  Once again, as in no. 4, sheer storytelling saves a human life.

  15. What the Owls Said, tr. from Portal, pp. 89–90. Hansen type 613 [Hero Overhears Secrets and Cures Illness] (Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico).

  In spite of its American Indian flavor, the tale is an Old World type found throughout Europe, where it is usually embedded in a somewhat longer narrative classified as The Two Travelers (AT 613). The remedy overheard in a conversation of animals or witches (motif N452), traceable to the Pentamerone and the Panchatantra, appears also in nos. 12, 80, and 84 of the present collection. But the details of the remedy at hand, as well as the satire on Western-style doctoring, are particular to this Mazatec version from Oaxaca State. The casting of corn kernels, the identification of an animal as the cause of disease, the liquid medicine (rum, or aguardiente, in this case), and the egg (which must be passed over the patient’s body) are standard features of Oaxaca folk medicine—probably indigenous except for the egg treatment, which is most likely of Spanish origin (Parsons 1936, pp. 120–2, 376, 493–8). Note that the offending animal is a toad, as also in the old Peruvian variant (see comment to no. 84).

  16. Aunt Misery, tr. from Ramírez de Arellano, no. 95. AT type 330D Bonhomme Misère. Closely related to AT type 330 The Smith Outwits the Devil (Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Europe).

  The hero of the story is always male, except here.

  17. Palm-tree Story, tr. from Reichel-Dolmatoff and Reichel-Dolmatoff 1956, no. 70. Type AT 327 The Children and the Ogre (Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, New Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Europe, India).

  The strange opening, in which the hero is expelled from his mother’s womb and immediately tries to help people, makes little sense until the last line of the story. No other version has either the surprise ending or the initial episode that sets it up.

  18/I. The Letter Carrier from the Other World, tr. from Laval 1968, no. 67. AT type 1540 The Student from Paradise (Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Europe, India, Middle East).

  In Old World versions a student tells a woman he comes from Paris. She understands him to say paradise and gives him money and goods to take to her deceased husband. In a Mexican variant he tells her that her husband is in Hell. She asks what her husband needs for his journey home and gives the trickster a horse, clothing, and money.

  18/II. The King’s Pigs, tr. from Lara Figueroa 1981, no. 4. AT type 1004 Hogs in the Mud (Argentina, Arizona, California, Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Texas, Europe, India, Middle East).

  One of the most commonly recorded stories about Pedro de Urdemalas. Often told in series with other, similar tales. Outside the Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking world the trickster is given different names. The version in Grimm’s (no. 192) is told of the “master thief.”

  18/III. The Sack, tr. from Laval 1968, no. 68. AT type 1737 The Parson in the Sack to Heaven (Argentina, Chile, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Europe, India, Middle East).

  Once again the old contrast between town and country, as in no. 75, where the man from the city goes out to the country to fleece the mourners at a wake. Here, Pedro de Urdemalas dresses up as a friar and heads for the countryside to beg for alms. The implication is that country people are easily duped. But in no. 14, “Death and the Doctor,” the man from the country goes to the city with a trick for working cures; and in no. 18/I Pedro himself is the country boy who rides into town with a money-making scheme.

  18/IV. Pedro Goes to Heaven, tr. from Chertudi 1964, pp. 97–9. AT type 330 The Smith Outwits the Devil (Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Mexico, New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Europe).

  The middle part of the story, with the Devil stuck in the tree, is a variation on no. 16.

  Old namesake: St. Peter, i.e., San Pedro, who shares his name with Pedro de Urdemalas.

  19. A Voyage to Eternity, tr. from Anibarro Halushka, no. 25. AT type 470 Friends in Life and Death (Bolivia, Colombia, Europe).

  Though rare in Latin America, the story is an established folktale type heavily reported from Iceland to Russia and from Spain to Turkey. The storyteller, who says, “I’m not sure, but I think this was in Spain,” shows that he considers the tale to be legendary rather than strictly fictional. For more on this narrator see introduction, pp. 13–4.

  20. Mother and Daughter, tr. from Reichel-Dolmatoff and Reichel-Dolmatoff 1956, no. 84.

  The little tale, barely more than a motif, may be regarded as a pious variant of AT type 310 The Maiden in the Tower, widespread in Europe, with variants in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. In that story a virgin kept in a tower is visited by a witch who climbs up on the girl’s hair. Here the witch has become the heroine’s own mother, caught in Purgatory. She does her time there, however, since apparently the narrator does not wish us to think she has cheated by climbing up too soon.

  21. The Bird Sweet Magic, tr. from Lyra, pp. 112–20. AT type 551 The Sons on a Quest for a Wonderful Remedy for Their Father (Argentina, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Mexico, New Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, Europe, India, Middle East) + AT type 505 The Grateful Dead (essentially the same distribution).

  The Grateful Dead is the story of a hero who pays for the burial of a penniless stranger; the dead man’s grateful spirit then follows the hero and helps him. In combination with the tale of the young son who seeks a cure for his father’s blindness and in the process wins a princess, as here, the story has an antecedent in the Book of Tobit in the Hebrew Apocrypha. Tobit, who buried the penniless dead, was himself stricken by blindness; and the spirit who followed his questing son was the angel Raphael. With the angel’s help the son finds a miraculous cure for his father’s blindness and wins the hand of Sarah, daughter of Raguel.

  This Costa Rican version comes from the woman we know only as Panchita, who nonetheless emerges as an imposing figure in Latin American folklore. Her stories have been indexed and repeatedly cited by folklorists. She had a wide-ranging repertoire of tales, and it is said that she possessed the “charm and wit” (el gracejo y la agudeza) that were required of storytellers who performed at wakes (Noguera, p. xv). For more on tía Panchita see introduction, pp. 12–3.

  22. Death Comes as a Rooster, tr. from Feijóo 1960, p. 80. AT type 1354 Death for the Old Couple (Cuba, New Mexico, Europe, India).

  23. The Twelve Truths of the World, tr. from J. M. Espinosa, no. 50. Motifs S224 Child promised to devil for acting as godfather; H602.1.1 Symbolic meaning of numbers one to [ . . . ] twelve.

  The prayer, sometimes called “The Twelve Words Turned Back,” is thought to have originated in India and to have traveled to Europe by way of the Middle East. Aurelio Espinosa says the earliest known version is in a Persian tale from the Book of Arda Viraf
, in which the questions and answers begin as follows: What is the one? The good sun that lights the world. What are the two? Drawing breath and exhaling. What are the three? Good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. What are the four? Water, earth, plants, and animals. What are the five? The five Persian kings, Kai-Kabad, Kai-Khusrov, Kai-Lorasp, etc. In a Jewish version the twelve words are God, the two tablets of Moses, the three patriarchs, the four mothers of Israel, and so forth (A. M. Espinosa 1946–47, vol. 3, pp. 119–20, 133). A non-Jewish Venezuelan version likewise includes the two tablets of Moses (Olivares Figueroa, pp. 86–9). Other Latin American versions—of the prayer only—have been recorded from Argentina, Chile, and Puerto Rico. Versions of the story without the prayer come from Ecuador (Carvalho-Neto 1994, nos. 48–50).

  An old Spanish belief is that it is necessary to know the twelve “words” because the soul on its journey to the hereafter must cross a bridge where the Devil is waiting to ask the twelve questions (Espinosa).