In the Shadow of the Sword: The Birth of Islam and the Rise of the Global Arab Empire
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Mesopotamia: ancient past of, 1.1; as Persian “jewel in crown”, 2.1, 2.2; irrigation/canal systems, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1; Garden of Eden, 2.6, 2.7; horticultural traditions, 2.8; invasion of Judah (586 BC), 2.9, 4.1, 4.2; exiled Jews in, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 3.1, 3.2; paganism in, 2.14; legacy of learning and divination, 2.15; Jewish origins in, 2.16, 2.17; toleration of Jews in, 2.18, 2.19; Peroz’s persecution of Jews, 2.20, 2.21; centres of scholarship in, 2.22, 2.23, 3.3, 3.4, 6.2, 7.2, 7.3; rabbis assume leadership role, 2.24, 3.5, 3.6; Christianity in, 2.25, 3.7; Romans expelled from, 3.8, 3.9; Roman incursion into (504), 3.10; Jewish-Christian competition for proselytes, 3.11; Jewish-Christian contacts, 3.12; followers of Nestorius in, 3.13; Samaritans escape to, 4.3; plague epidemic (from 545), 5.2, 5.3; Heraclius lays waste to, 5.4; falls to the Saracens, 6.3, 6.4
Mihr (Persian god), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1
Mihran (Parthian dynasty), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 5.1, 5.2
Milan
Mongols
“Monophysites”, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
monotheisms, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3; monos theos, 1.5; Muhammad and, 1.6, 6.4, 6.5; Islam in grand tradition of, 1.7
Moses, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 7.2
Mu’awiya, Caliph, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4; battle with Ali in Syria, 6.3; becomes Caliph, 6.4; as favourite of God, 6.5, 7.5; pays little heed to the Prophet, 6.6; reaches out to Christians, 6.7; multi-cultural interpretation of “the faithful”, 6.8; as intercessor to God, 6.9, 7.6; ambition to take Constantinople, 7.7; proclaims son Yazid as successor, 7.8; death of (680), 7.9, 7.10; grip on Arabia of, 7.11
Muhammad: Ibn Hisham’s biography of, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 6.1, bm1.1; revelations from God, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 6.2; monotheism and, 1.18, 6.3, 6.4; flight to Medina (hijra), 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 6.5; Yathrib and, 1.22; social justice and, 1.23, 1.24, 7.1; state-building and, 1.25, 6.6, 6.7; Umma, 1.26, 1.27, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10; victory at Badr, 1.28, 1.29, 1.30, 1.31; military campaigns, 1.32; conquest of Mecca, 1.33; death of, 1.34, 6.11; Sahabah (“Companions”), 1.35, 6.12, 7.2; later versions of biography of, 1.36, 1.37, 1.38, 6.13, 7.3; veneration of, 1.39; preservation of legacy, 1.40; opacity of within Qur’an, 1.41, 1.42, 6.14; absence of early Muslim references to, 1.43, 1.44, 1.45; lack of extant/contemporary accounts of, 1.46, 1.47, 1.48, 1.49, 6.15, 6.16; contemporary non-Islamic accounts of, 1.50; questioning of existence of, 1.51, 1.52; Mary (mother of Christ) and, 1.53, 1.54; tradition of as illiterate, 1.55, 1.56; coming of as “end of antiquity”, 1.57; praise of tharidat Ghassan, 5.1*; familiarity with Roman imperialism, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19; knowledge of Roman-Persian war, 6.20; other religions and, 6.21; will of God through written word, 6.22; hybrid cults in Arabia and, 6.23; idol smashing in Mecca and, 6.24, 6.25; trade as interest of, 6.26; summoning of Arabs to holy war, 6.27, 6.28; “Constitution of Medina”, 6.29, 6.30; border zone south of Palestine and, 6.31, 7.4; Moses and, 6.32; Jews as members of Umma, 6.33, 6.34; limits of imperial ambitions, 6.35; lessening of influence as Empire expands, 6.36; fading memories of, 6.37, 7.5, 7.6; status of specific shrines and, 7.7; Ibn al-Zubayr proclaims as Prophet of God, 7.8; Abd al-Malik proclaims as Prophet of God, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13; attitudes to slavery, 7.14, 7.15; views on wealth and consumption, 7.16; authentication of sayings of, 7.17; martial shaping of biography of, 7.18, 7.19; first biographies of, bm1.2; see also Qur’an
“Mukhtar the Deceiver”, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4
Mundhir (Lakhmid chieftain), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1; rampage through Syria (529), 4.8; death of at Chalcis (554), 5.3, 5.4, 6.2
Mus’ab (brother of ibn al-Zubayr), 7.1, 7.2
Nabataea, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.1, 6.2
Najran, 1.1, 1.2*, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2
Nazorean sect, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
Negev desert, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1, 6.2
“Nehemiah” (“son of Hushiel”), 5.1, 6.1
Nero (Roman emperor), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
Nessana (Negev settlement)
Nestorius and Nestorians, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1
New Testament, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1; “gospels”, 1.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5; Athanasius prescribes list of books, 3.6, 5.1
Nicaean Council (325), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1
Nisibis (Persian city), 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3
Noah and the Flood
nomads, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 5.1, 7.1; Arab, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 5.2; Avars, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5; largely unaffected by plague, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9; see also Hephthalites
Ohrmazd (Persian god), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 6.1, 7.1; lighter of the great fires, 2.8; struggle with Ahriman, 2.9, 2.10; revelations to Zoroaster, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13; Mihr and, 2.14, 2.15
Ostrogoths, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 6.1
paganism: in Mecca, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1; Islam defeats in Arabia, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5; invisibility of in Christian histories, 1.6*; in Mesopotamia, 2.1; cult of Sin, 2.2, 6.2, 7.1; in Roman Empire, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6; Greek mythology, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 4.1, 6.3; in Persian Empire, 3.11; Christian disdain for, 3.12, 3.13; Julian reasserts, 3.14, 4.2; Constantinople outlaws, 3.15, 3.16; turning of blind eye to in Constantinople, 3.17; Justinian’s campaign against, 3.18, 5.1, 6.4; pillar climbers, 4.3; survival of in Holy Land, 4.4, 4.5; tent dwelling Arabs and, 4.6; effect on Arabs of suppression of, 4.7; Arab desert spirits/demons, 4.8, 5.2, 5.3, 6.5, 6.6; Alexandria and, 5.4, 5.5; overlaps with Christian belief, 5.6; scattered outposts remaining, 6.7; expurgation of in Constantinople under Maurice, 6.8; manuscripts in libraries, 6.9; in Damascus, 7.2; in Harran, 7.3
Palestine see Holy Land
Palladium, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 4.1, 7.1
Pallas Athena, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
Palmyra (oasis city), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1
Parthians, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1; Mihran dynasty, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 5.3, 5.4; Karin dynasty, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 7.1, 7.2; Sasanian-Parthian civil war (630), 5.5
Saint Paul, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 7.1; rejection of the Torah, 3.5, 3.6; letters of, 3.7, 3.8; travel westward, 3.9; in Ephesus, 3.10, 3.11; execution of in Rome, 3.12
Paul (patriarch of Alexandria)
Pelusium (Egyptian port)
Pergamum (city)
Peroz (King of Persia), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 4.1, 7.1; re-writing of Iranian history by, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12*; Roman subsidies/tribute and, 2.13; crumbling of Jewish compact and, 2.14; persecution of Jews, 2.15, 2.16
Persepolis, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3†, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 6.1
Persian Empire: extent of dominion, 1.1, 2.1; collapse of, 1.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1; comparisons with Caliphate, 1.3; Arab conquest of former provinces, 1.4; facial hair in, 2.2; Hephthalite threat to, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7; campaigns against Hephthalites, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 7.2; military and royal insignia, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15; farr (mark of kingly divinity), 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22; supernatural mystique of royalty, 2.23, 2.24, 2.25; rule of King Peroz, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28, 2.29, 2.30, 2.31, 2.32; Parthians and, 2.33, 2.34, 2.35, 2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 5.1, 5.2, 6.4; fifth-century re-writing of Iranian history, 2.39, 2.40, 2.41, 2.42, 2.43*; sacred fire temples, 2.44, 2.45, 2.46, 5.3, 6.5, 6.6, 7.3, 7.4; rule of King Kavad, 2.47, 2.48, 2.49, 2.50; social upheaval after civil war, 2.51; millennium prophet awaited, 2.52; “Adherents of Justice”, 2.53; forced abdication/imprisonment of Kavad (496), 2.54; Kavad returns as king, 2.55; monuments to golden age, 2.56; “Place of a Hundred Pillars” (Persepolis), 2.57; conflict with Roman Empire, 2.58, 2.59, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.4, 5.5, 6.7, 6.8; subsidies/tribute from Rome, 2.60, 2.61, 3.4; Mesopotamia as “jewel in crown”, 2.62, 2.63; Ctesiphon as cockpit of, 2.64; de-militarisation of Roman frontier, 2.65; slavery in, 2.66, 7.5; Khusrow forms standing army, 2.67; urination in public and, 2.68; re-militarised Roman frontier and, 3.5, 3.6; embassies to Constantinople, 3.7, 3.8; paganism in, 3.9; Arab mercenaries and, 4.1; Justinian-Khusrow peace treaty (532),
4.2, 5.6, 5.7; plague epidemic (from 545), 5.8, 5.9; alliance with the Turks, 5.10; final defeat of Hephthalites (557), 5.11; Hormizd deposed and murdered, 5.12; Khusrow II’s invasion of Roman Empire (603-15), 5.13, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13; fall of Jerusalem to Shahrbaraz (614), 5.14; Heraclius’ counteroffensive against (624-9), 5.15; Sasanian-Parthian civil war (630), 5.16; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.14; direct rule over Himyar, 6.15; Saracen victory at Qadisiyya, 6.16, 6.17; Saracen capture of Ctesiphon, 6.18; Saracen invasion of, 6.19; see also Sasan, House of (Persian dynasty); Zoroastrians
Peter, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
Petra (city)
Philip (Roman emperor), 3.1, 4.1
Phocas (Roman emperor), 5.1, 5.2
plague epidemics, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 6.1; nomads largely unaffected by, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11; returns to Galilee (600), 5.12; in Iraq, 7.1
Posidonius (Greek polymath), 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
poverty, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1
Puin, Gerd-Rüdiger, 6.1, 6.2
Pumpedita (Mesopotamian city), 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 7.1
Qadisiyya, battle at, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
Qur’an: tradition of Uthman as compiler, 1.1, 6.1, 7.1; scholars of, 1.2, 1.3, 6.2, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, bm1.1; the Prophet’s opacity within, 1.4, 1.5, 6.3; authentication by “isnads”, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11; “tafsir”, 1.12; as word of God, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 6.4, 6.5; eternal and divine nature of, 1.16, 6.6, 6.7; date of Badr and, 1.17; modern doubts over origins of, 1.18, 1.19, 6.8; dating of composition of, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12; Christian writings and, 1.23; Jewish writings and, 1.24, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16; the Annunciation in, 1.25; birth of Christ in, 1.26; Jibril (Gabriel) in, 1.27; Biblical characters in, 1.28, 1.29, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19; Mary (mother of Christ) in, 1.30; traditional version of origins, 1.31, 6.20; “muhajirun” (emigrants) concept, 6.21, 6.22, 6.23, 6.24, 6.25; story of Abraham in, 6.26, 6.27; absence of Mecca in, 6.28, 6.29, 6.30; absence of commentaries pre-ninth Christian century, 6.31; Jewish/Christian beliefs and, 6.32, 6.33, 6.34, 6.35; low profile in early decades of empire, 6.36, 6.37, 7.7; secular enquiry into origins of, 6.38, 6.39, 6.40; global standard/single text (est. 1924), 6.41*; fragments found in Sana’a, 6.42, 6.43; unified bedrock of, 6.44; appears in written record (early eighth century), 6.45; sense of awe amongst transcribers, 6.46, 6.47; ambiguous material in, 6.48; scarcity of datable characters/events, 6.49; Mushrikun in, 6.50, 6.51, 6.52, 6.53, 6.54, 6.55, 6.56, 7.8, 7.9; clues in to date of composition, 6.57; references to Roman-Persian war, 6.58, 6.59; End Days in, 6.60, 6.61, 6.62, 6.63; Alexander the Great (Dhu’l Qarnayn) in, 6.64, 6.65, 6.66; focus on prophets not kings, 6.67; miracle of the seven sleepers in, 6.68; as record of specific moment in history, 6.69, 6.70, 6.71; jizya (poll tax on infidels), 6.72, 7.10, 7.11; Nasara (Christians) in, 6.73; allusions to fabulously distant past, 6.74; “Dead Sea Scrolls” and, 6.75; “the People of the Trench” in, 6.76; Greek mythology and, 6.77; doubts over Mecca as city of origin, 6.78, 6.79, 6.80, 6.81, 6.82, 6.83, 7.12, 7.13; offences relating to cattle in, 6.84; scarcity of place names in, 6.85; Bakka’s significance in, 6.86, 6.87, 6.88, 6.89, 7.14, 7.15, 7.16; habits of worship in, 6.90; allusions to Sodom and Gomorrah, 6.91; descriptions of Quraysh in, 6.92, 6.93, 6.94; earthly profits and, 6.95, 6.96, 6.97; traces of decaying imperial frontier in, 6.98, 6.99; absence of hijra term in, 6.100; absence of inscriptions from before Abd al-Malik’s reign, 7.17; early Christian comment on, 7.18; Abd al-Malik’ role in compilation, 7.19; Al-Hajjaj’s role in compilation, 7.20; jihad concept, 7.21; see also Muhammad
Quraysh, 1.1, 1.2*, 1.3, 1.4, 6.1, 6.2; as guardians of Ka’ba, 1.5; Umayyad dynasty, 1.6, 6.3; absence of in Roman registers, 6.4; derivation of name, 6.5, 6.6; doubts over Mecca as city of origin, 6.7; Abbasid dynasty, 7.1
rabbis, 1.1, 2.1; talmud (written record of learning), 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1; assume leadership role in Mesopotamia, 2.5, 3.2, 3.3; disagree on definitions of Jewishness, 3.4; refusal to engage with minim, 3.5, 3.6; rabbi-bishop “sibling rivalry”, 3.7; Moses as ultimate rabbi, 4.4; in Palestine, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7; Galilee as stronghold of, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10; converts to Islam, 7.2
Rahman, Fazlur, 1.1, 1.2
Rav Yehudai (rabbi), 7.1, 7.2
Ravenna, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4
relics, Christian, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7; True Cross, 4.8, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 7.1
Renan, Ernest, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
Roman Empire, Eastern, New (Constantinople): pacification of Himyar, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 5.1; Arab conquest of former provinces, 1.3, 5.2; conflict with Persian Empire, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.3, 5.4, 6.1, 6.2; founding of, 3.4; fall of western empire and, 3.5; subsidies/tribute to Persia, 3.6; frontier policy, 3.7, 3.8, 4.2, 4.3, 5.5, 6.3; re-militarisation of Persian frontier, 3.9, 3.10; Kavad’s embassies to Constantinople, 3.11, 3.12; imperial bureaucracy, 3.13, 3.14; Justinian’s codification of laws, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18; victory at Dara (530), 3.19, 5.6; Persian frontier, 3.20; Christian Church and, 3.21, 4.4, 4.5, 5.7, 5.8; Julian reasserts paganism, 3.22, 4.6; splits in Church after Chalcedon, 3.23; use of Temple Mount to humiliate Jews, 4.7; definitions of Jewishness (Ioudaismos), 4.8; regulation of empire’s Jews, 4.9; Samaritan revolts and (484-529), 4.10, 4.11; foederati (Barbarian mercenaries), 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 5.9, 5.10, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9; “Saracens” term for Arabs, 4.15, 6.10; Arab settlements, 4.16; Justinian-Khusrow peace treaty (532), 4.17, 5.11, 5.12; Mundhir’s activities and, 4.18, 4.19, 4.20; spread of Christianity to east and south, 5.13; map of in Justinian’s reign, 5.14; Christianity in lost western regions, 5.15; rule in former western provinces, 5.16; Justinian’s campaigns in west, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19; Khusrow’s invasion of (540), 5.20; plague epidemic (from 541), 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, 5.24, 5.25, 5.26, 5.27; economic effects of plague epidemic, 5.28, 5.29; harbingers of the End Days (mid-sixth century), 5.30; invaded by barbarian army (559), 5.31; nomads outnumber locals after plague, 5.32; Ghassanids as shields of Christian empire, 5.33, 6.11; weakness on southern frontiers, 5.34; frontier with Persia as supreme priority, 5.35; Maurice’s backing of Khusrow II, 5.36; Maurice cuts army pay, 5.37; Phocas overthows Maurice (602), 5.38, 5.39; Khusrow II invades (603-15), 5.40, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16; marks of ruin after Persian invasion, 5.41; compulsory baptism of Jews and Samaritans decreed (632), 5.42, 6.17, 6.18; Muhammad’s familiarity with, 6.19; rejection of Manichaeism, 6.20; Saracen invasion of Holy Land/Syria (634-6), 6.21, 6.22; Arab foederati revolt (582), 6.23; Saracen victory at the Yarmuk, 6.24, 6.25; spectacular violence in name of God, 6.26; loss of Alexandria (642), 6.27; Abd al-Malik pays tribute to, 7.1, 7.2; Cilicia as cordon sanitaire, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; decay and impoverishment of, 7.6, 7.7; impregnable orthodoxy of shrunken empire, 7.8; victory at Acroinum (740), 7.9, 7.10; Haroun al-Rashid’s campaign against (806), bm1.1; see also Constantinople
Roman Empire: veneer of indestructibility, 1.1; legal system, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4; loss of western half of, 1.3, 1.4, 3.5, 3.6, 5.1, 5.2; conversion to Christianity, 1.5, 2.1, 3.7, 3.8, 6.1; Caliphate built on foundations of, 1.6; in Muslim histories, 1.7; Hephthalite mercenaries threaten, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4; Persian frontier, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 3.9; subsidies/tribute to Persia, 2.8, 2.9; Ctesiphon as target for, 2.10; de-militarisation of Persian border, 2.11; Kavad’s campaign against, 2.12, 3.10, bm1.1; rule of Jerusalem, 2.13; rise and expansion of, 3.11; feelings of inferiority in the East, 3.12; maps of, 3.13, 3.14; conquests in the West, 3.15; paganism in, 3.16, 3.17, 3.18, 3.19, 3.20, 3.21; cultural inferiority to Greeks, 3.22; free men granted citizenship, 3.23; as bringer of peace, 3.24; golden age, 3.25; barbarians in northern reaches, 3.26, 3.27; foederati (Barbarian mercenaries), 3.28, 3.29, 4.1, 5.3; frontier policy, 3.30; threat from Goths, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33; expulsion from Mesopotamia, 3.34, 3.35; conflict with Persian Empire, 3.36; Valerian captured by Shapur, 3.37, 3.38, 4.2; hauling back from the brink (third century), 3.39; fiscal revolution in, 3.40; founding of Constantinople, 3.41; development of Dara (from 505), 3.42; incursion into Mesopotamia (504), 3.43; role of violence in,
3.44; rebuilding of Dara, 3.45; hostility to Judaism, 3.46; judicial murders of Christians, 3.47; full-scale persecution of Christians, 3.48, 3.49; Jerusalem as possession of, 4.3; naming of Holy Land as “Palestine”, 4.4; Arabs kingdoms, 4.5; Arab foederati, 4.6, 4.7; employment of barbarians, 4.8, 4.9, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4; castra (camps of frontier system), 4.10; strata (paved roads), 4.11, 6.5, 6.6; retaking of Rome (536), 5.4; cataloguing of Arabian tribes, 6.7; slavery in, 7.1, 7.2
Rome: the supernatural and, 3.1, 3.2; origins in Troy, 3.3, 3.4; the Palladium and, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7; millennium celebrated in (248 AD), 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 4.1; history of civil bloodshed in, 3.11, 3.12; coup (244), 3.13; relations with Constantinople, 3.14; fall of to Goths, 3.15; Circus Maximus, 3.16; Belisarius retakes for empire (536), 5.1; siege of (537-8), 5.2; effects of Justinian’s “victory” in, 5.3
Romulus, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
Rushdie, Salman
“Sabaeans” (people featured in Qur’an), 6.1, 7.1
Samaritans, 1.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
Sarah (wife of Abraham), 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
Sasan, House of (Persian dynasty), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 3.1; Mesopotamia as “jewel in crown”, 2.9, 2.10; Ctesiphon as cockpit of, 2.11; Khusrow becomes king, 2.12; Veh-Ardashir as first capital city, 2.13, 2.14; Jewish “exilarch” in, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17; toleration of Jews, 2.18, 2.19; crumbling of Jewish compact, 2.20; Peroz’s persecution of Jews, 2.21, 2.22; Valerian captured by Shapur, 3.2, 3.3, 4.1; implications for Arabs of rise of, 4.2; deposition of Hormizd, 5.1; Shahrbaraz betrayal of, 5.2; Sasanian-Parthian civil war (630), 5.3; collapse of, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1; founding of, bm1.1
Schacht, Joseph, 1.1, 1.2
scientific enquiry, 1.1, 1.2
Seleucia (Babylon), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.1
Serapis (god)
Sergius (Roman patrician), 6.1, 6.2
Shahrbaraz (Mihranid warlord), 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4