by John Demos
9. Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Charles A. Boardman, October 10, 1826, ABC 1.01, vol. 6, nos. 318–19; Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Charles A. Boardman, October 7, 1826, ABC 1.01, vol. 6, nos. 308–9; Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. T. Smith, August 26, 1825, ABC 1.01, vol. 5, nos. 359–61.
10. Fifteenth Annual Report, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston, 1824), 130; Sixteenth Annual Report, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston, 1825), 97.
11. On efforts to place departing scholars, see, for example, Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Bennet Tyler, October 7, 1826, ABC 1.01, vol. 6, nos. 316–17; Jeremiah Evarts to Deacon L. Loomis, May 4, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 93–94.
12. Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Dr. Tyler, November 11, 1826, ABC 1.01, vol. 6, no. 359; Jeremiah Evarts to Augustine N. Hooker, May 1, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 170–71.
13. Jeremiah Evarts to Deacon L. Loomis, May 4, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 93–94.
14. Jeremiah Evarts to John E. Phelps, May 26, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 165–67.
15. Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Rufus W. Bailey, n.d., ABC 1.01, vol. 6, nos. 311–12. See also David Greene to Rev. Bennet Tyler, August 29, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, no. 399.
16. Jeremiah Evarts to Deacon L. Loomis, March 28, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 50–52.
17. Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Herman Daggett, July 21, 1828, ABC 1.01, vol. 8, nos. 428–29; Jeremiah Evarts to Deacon L. Loomis, September 5, 1828, ABC 1.01, vol. 8, nos. 544–45; Jeremiah Evarts to Edwin Dwight, September 17, 1828, ABC 1.01, vol. 8, nos. 560–61.
18. Jeremiah Evarts to Elisha Stearns, May 25, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, no. 158; Jeremiah Evarts to Philo Swift, July 19, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 307–8; Connecticut Herald, December 5, 1826. See also Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. Timothy Stone, September 6, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, no. 427.
19. Jeremiah Evarts to Rev. E. W. Caruthers, August 26, 1828, ABC 1.01, vol. 8, nos. 516–17; David Greene to Rev. Heman Humphrey, June 20, 1830, ABC 1.01, vol. 10, nos. 67–68; David Greene to Rev. Hiram Smith, March 30, 1830, ABC 1.01, vol. 10, nos. 57–59.
20. On Tennooe’s “defection,” see chapter 4. The letter from Gerrit P. Judd to Edwin Dwight, September 27, 1830 (typescript copy) is in FMS Archive, folder 36. (The original is in the Dwight Collection, Norman Rockwell Museum, Stockbridge, MA.)
21. On Hopoo’s work, and also his sexual transgressions, see Gerrit P. Judd to Edwin Dwight, September 27, 1830. On his marriage, see New-York Commercial Advertiser, September 23, 1823.
22. Gerrit P. Judd to Edwin Dwight, September 27, 1830 (typescript copy), FMS Archive, folder 36; Hiram Bingham to E. W. Clark, February 22, 1831, Bingham Family Papers, Division of Manuscripts and Archives, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
23. Sheldon Dibble, A History of the Sandwich Islands (Honolulu, 1909), 148–49.
24. Moody Hall to Jeremiah Evarts, April 5, 1825, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 5, no. 333; Moody Hall to Jeremiah Evarts, August 20, 1825, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 5, no. 338; David Brown to Jeremiah Evarts, July 11, 1826, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 6, no. 290; Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, March 4, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 37; Jeremiah Evarts to Rufus Anderson, March 13, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 39; William Manwaring to Jeremiah Evarts, August 9, 1825, ABC 11, vol. 5, no. 346.
25. Samuel Worcester to Jeremiah Evarts, July 28, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 5, no. 231; Samuel Worcester to Jeremiah Evarts, May 29, 1827, ABC 11, vol. 5, no. 235.
26. Moody Hall to Jeremiah Evarts, September 18, 1824, ABC 11, vol. 5, no. 333; William Manwaring to Jeremiah Evarts, August 9, 1825, ABC 11, vol. 5, no. 346.
27. “One young man from China” (Henry Martyn Alan): See Carl T. Smith, Chinese Christians: Elites, Middle Men, and the Church in Hong Kong, 2d ed. (Hong Kong, 2005), 56–58. “An Oneida Indian” (Peter Augustine Hooker): See H. K. Cooper to Rev. E. C. Starr, January 5, 1899, FMS Archive, folder 43. “A Stockbridge Indian” (John Newcombe Chicks): See The Missionary Herald, vol. 29 (1833), 25. “A Delaware Indian” (Adin Gibbs): See Adin Gibbs to the Gentlemen of the Prudential Committee, June 20, 1822, ABC 12.1, vol. 2, no. 135. “A young man of Portuguese extraction” (Joseph J. Loy): See obituary in Daily Witness (Montreal, Canada), March 27, 1897 (photocopy), FMS Archive, folder 54.
28. This account of Fisk’s life is based largely on Lyman F. Hodge, Photius Fisk: A Biography (Boston, 1891). On his experiences soon after leaving the Mission School, see also Rufus Anderson to Rev. Daniel Temple, June 25, 1827, ABC 1.01, vol. 7, nos. 248–52.
29. The Commonwealth (Boston), March 31, 1883, quoted in Hodge, Photius Fisk, 183.
30. Lowell Vox Populi, n.p., quoted in Hodge, Photius Fisk, 188; Susan H. Mixon, quoted ibid., 199.
31. Douglas Warne, Humehume of Kaua’i: A Boy’s Journey to America, An Ali’i’s Return Home (Honolulu, 2008).
32. George “Prince” Tamoree to Benjamin Gold, July 29, 1820 (photocopy), FMS Archive, folder 36.
33. Mercy Whitney’s Journal, vol. 1 (1821–27), quoted in Warne, Humehume of Kaua’i, 156.
34. See, for example, Herman Daggett to George P. Tamoree, November 14, 1820 (photocopy), FMS Archive, folder 16. See also Herman Daggett to George P. Tamoree, December 1, 1825 (photocopy), FMS Archive, folder 16. In this letter, the principal deplores Tamoree’s “unhappy interference with government.” (This refers to his leadership of an ill-advised rebellion.)
35. Bingham’s comments are quoted in Warne, Humehume of Kaua’i, 181, 184.
36. On Tamoree’s leadership of the Kaua’i rebellion of 1824 and its aftermath, see Warne, Humehume of Kaua’i, 185–205. See also Catherine Stauder, “George Prince of Hawaii,” Hawaiian Journal of History 6 (1972): 28–44; Anne Harding Spoehr, “George Prince Tamoree: Heir Apparent of Kaua’i and Niihau,” Hawaiian Journal of History 15 (1981): 73–88. For contemporary accounts of these events, see Connecticut Courant (Hartford), March 22, 1825, and The Missionary Herald, vol. 21 (1825), 123–24.
37. John Ridge to President James Monroe, March 8, 1821, John Howard Payne Papers, no. 761, Newberry Library, Chicago, IL. On John Ridge’s role (and also Elias Boudinot’s) in making the case for Cherokee “improvement,” see Maureen Konkle, Writing Indian Nations: Native Intellectuals and the Politics of Historiography, 1827–1863 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004), chapter 1; Hilary Wyss, English Letters and Indian Literacies: Reading, Writing, and New England Missionary Schools, 1750–1830 (Philadelphia, 2012), 171–78.
38. Wyss, English Letters and Indian Literacies, 154–60.
39. Ibid., 161–85. (The quote from the Creek citation is on p. 180.)
40. The full text of Ridge’s “sketch” can be found in William C. Sturtevant, ed., “John Ridge on Cherokee Civilization in 1826,” Journal of Cherokee Studies 6 (1981): 79–91. On the portrait by Charles Bird King, see p. 206 (and note 25 on p. 309).
41. Savannah Georgian, June 3, 1826, quoted in Thurman Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People, 2d ed. (Norman, OK, 1986), 177n; Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, April 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 41; Sophia Sawyer to David Greene, August 28, 1834, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 8, no. 183.
42. The Missionary Herald, vol. 20 (1824), 348. See also Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, January 23, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 26.
43. On plans for the fund-raising tour, see Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, January 23, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 26; Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 193ff. On Boudinot’s success as a speaker, see Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, February 9, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 30. See also Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, February 3, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 29.
44. The full text appears in Theda Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor: The Writings of Elias Boudinot (Athens, GA, 1996), 68–79.
45. Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, March 22, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 40; Harriet (Gold) Boudinot to Herman and Flora (Gold) Vaill, January 5, 1827, in Theresa Strouth Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian: The Marriage of Harriett Gold & Elias Boudinot in Letters, 1823–1839 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2005), 154–55; Harriet (Gold) Boud
inot to Benjamin and Eleanor Gold, July 17, 1826. (The original of this letter has apparently been lost; the quote beginning “when the family are all assembled” appears in Mary Brinsmade Church, “Elias Boudinot: An Account of His Life by His Grand-daughter,” Town History Papers of the Woman’s Club of Washington, Conn. (1913), typescript copy, FMS Archive, folder 61. See also Daniel Buttrick to Jeremiah Evarts, October 7, 1826, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 4, no. 25.
46. Daniel Buttrick to Jeremiah Evarts, October 7, 1826, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 4, no. 25; Elias and Harriet (Gold) Boudinot to Herman and Flora (Gold) Vaill, January 5, 1827, in Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian, 153–57; Samuel Worcester to Jeremiah Evarts, January 8, 1827, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 5, no. 234.
47. John Ridge to E. Butler, July 7, 1826, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 4, no. 69.
48. See Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor, 90 passim; Ralph Henry Gabriel, Elias Boudinot, Cherokee, & His America (Norman, OK, 1941), especially chapters 14–15.
49. Morris Woodruff to Candace Woodruff, February 26, 1827, Woodruff Collection, Litchfield County Historical Society, Litchfield, CT; Jeremiah Evarts to Henry Hill, April 2, 1826, ABC 11, vol. 2, no. 41; Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall, History of the Indian Tribes of North America with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs, ed. F. W. Hodge, 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1933), vol. 1, 327–28; Church, “Elias Boudinot.” For a further opinion on the Ridge marriage, see Daniel Buttrick to Jeremiah Evarts, October 12, 1824, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 4, no. 2.
50. The account presented here of Cherokee removal—with special attention to the participation of John Ridge and Elias Boudinot—draws heavily on Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy. The scholarly literature on removal is vast, extending from the classic work of Grant Foreman, Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (Norman, OK, 1934) to, most recently, Theda Perdue and Michael Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears (New York, 2007). Other important works include Marion Starkey, The Cherokee Nation (New York, 1946); John Ehle, Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation (New York, 1988); William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton, NJ, 1986). See also Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln, NE, 1974), and William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail of Tears: The Cherokees’ Struggle for Sovereignty, 1839–1880 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993).
51. See Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, chapter 8. On harassment of Boudinot, see Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor, 226.
52. “Indian Rights,” Haverhill [MA] Gazette, March 17, 1832.
53. C. E. B. (Catherine E. Beecher), Boston Courier, March 15, 1832; “Indian Rights,” Haverhill [MA] Gazette, March 17, 1832; Jack Larkin and Caroline Sloat, eds., “A Place in My Chronicle,” A New Edition of the Diary of Christopher Columbus Baldwin, 1829–1835 (Worcester, MA, 2010), 115.
54. John Ridge to Stand Watie, April 6, 1832, in Cherokee Cavaliers: Forty Years of Cherokee History as Told in the Correspondence of the Ridge-Watie-Boudinot Family ed. Edward E. Dale and Gaston Little (Norman, OK, 1939), 7–8.
55. “The Cherokees,” New York Journal of Commerce, July 22, 1839; Amos Kendall, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 237.
56. See Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, chapter 10.
57. Ibid., chapter 11. On threats against Ridge, see, for example, Sophia Sawyer to David Greene, June 15, 1835, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 8, no. 186. On suspicion that leaders of the Treaty Party had personally profited from removal, see Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 251n. For Boudinot’s denial, see Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor, 201.
58. See Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, chapter 12. The treaty signing was witnessed by a white man, J. W. H. Underwood; see Cartersville [GA] Courant, March 26, 1885, quoted in Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor, 27.
59. John Ridge to Doctor Sam’l W. Gold, January 2, 1831; see T. S. Gold, Historical Records of the Town of Cornwall, Litchfield County, Connecticut, 2d ed. (Hartford, CT, 1927), 350–51; Mrs. Eunice (Wadsworth) Taylor, “Recollection,” in E. C. Starr, A History of Cornwall, Connecticut: A Typical New England Town (New Haven, CT, 1926), 155.
60. These quoted comments are taken from several of Harriet’s letters to her parents and siblings in Connecticut, written between January 5, 1827, and May 27, 1833; see Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian, 153–63, 170–83, and FMS Archive, folders 14–15. The locks of the children’s hair are in FMS Archive, folder 15.
61. Benjamin Gold to Herman and Flora (Gold) Vaill, October 29, 1829, in Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian, 164; Benjamin Gold to Hezekiah Gold, December 8, 1829, quoted in T. S. Gold, Historical Records of the Town of Cornwall 38; The Ohio Star (Ravenna), August 4, 1830.
62. Benjamin Gold to Hezekiah Gold, December 8, 1829, quoted in Gold, Historical Records of the Town of Cornwall (1904), 38; The Ohio Star (Ravenna), August 4, 1830.
63. Lewis B. Woodruff to George C. Woodruff, February 7, 1834, Woodruff Collection, Litchfield Historical Society, Litchfield, CT.
64. Harriett (Gold) Boudinot to Herman and Flora (Gold) Vaill, January 7, 1831, in Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian, 173; Elias and Harriett (Gold) Boudinot to Herman and Flora (Gold) Vaill, July 1, 1831, ibid., 175, 177; Harriet (Gold) Boudinot to Sarah (Gold) Hopkins (letter fragment), n.d. (typescript copy), FMS Archive, folder 14.
65. Elias Boudinot to Benjamin and Eleanor Gold, August 16, 1836, in Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian, 183–90. For the New York Observer version, republished with editorial notes, see Journal of Cherokee Studies 4 (1979): 102–7.
66. Journal of Cherokee Studies 4 (1979): 102–7.
67. Elias Boudinot to Herman and Flora (Gold) Vaill, August 28, 1836, in Gaul, ed., To Marry an Indian, 195; Elias Boudinot to Job Swift Gold, October 26, 1836, ibid., 197; Elias Boudinot to David Greene, April 14, 1837, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 8, no. 217; Elias Boudinot to Benjamin and Eleanor Gold, May 20, 1837, in Gaul, To Marry an Indian, 200.
68. John Ridge to Eliza Northrup, November 1, 1836 (typescript copy), FMS Archive, folder 19.
69. For a firsthand account of the emigrant party that included Major Ridge and family, see Grant Foreman, ed., “Journey of a Party of Cherokee Emigrants,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 18 (1931): 232–45. See also Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 304–7. The newspaper report quoted here came from the Jonesboro [TN] Sentinel, April 19, 1837, as reprinted in the Times-Picayune (New Orleans), May 8, 1837.
70. Statement of U.S. Commissioners, June 27, 1837, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 308; John Ridge to Col. John Kennedy et al., January 16, 1838 (photocopy), Ridge Family File, VFHC 5176–77, Manuscripts Division, Arkansas History Commission, Little Rock, AR.
71. Indian Pioneer Historical Project, Oklahoma Historical Society, vol. 75, 388; Ridge accounts, HM 1730, Henry E. Huntington Library, Pasadena, CA.
72. John Ridge to Col. John Kennedy et al., January 16, 1838 (photocopy), Ridge Family File, VFHC 5176–77.
73. For overviews of the removal process, see Perdue and Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears; Ehle, Trail of Tears. For an especially vivid eyewitness account, see Cherokee Removal: The Journal of Rev. Daniel S. Butrick, May 19, 1838–April 1, 1839 (Park Hill, OK, 1998).
74. H. G. Clauder to Theodore Schultz, March 17, 1837, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 322.
75. New York Observer, January 26, 1839, quoted in Perdue and Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears, 134. For a useful summary of efforts to calculate the total of deaths in the removal process, see Russell Thornton, The Cherokees: A Population History (Lincoln, NE, 1990), 73–76.
76. See Perdue and Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears, chapter 7.
77. Ridge accounts, HM 1730, Henry E. Huntington Library, Pasadena, CA; Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), October 2, 1839, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 328.
78. See Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 329–34.
79. Ibid. See also Samuel Worcester to David Greene, July 17, 1839, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 10, no. 137; John Howard Payne Papers, vol. 6, 199, Newberry Lib
rary, Chicago, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 209.
80. Niles’ National Register, August 3, 1839, quoted in Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy, 335–36; John Rollin Ridge, Poems (San Francisco, 1868), 7–8.
81. Samuel Worcester to David Greene, June 26, 1839, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 10, no. 136. A similar account of Boudinot’s murder appears in Samuel Worcester to Daniel Brinsmade, June 26, 1839 (typescript copy), FMS Archive, folder 14.
82. Joan Gilbert, “Death in Arkansas,” Rural Arkansas, October 1987, 4–5.
83. Elias Boudinot, Letters and Other Papers Relating to Cherokee Affairs: Being a Reply to Sundry Publications Authorized by John Ross (Athens, GA, 1837), reprinted in Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor, 160.
84. John Ridge to David Greene, July 24, 1834, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 8, no. 213.
85. Elias Boudinot to David Greene, April 14, 1837, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 8, no. 218; Boudinot, Letters and Other Papers Relating to Cherokee Affairs, reprinted in Perdue, ed., Cherokee Editor, 222–25.
86. John Ridge to David Greene, May 17, 1837, ABC 18.3.1 (part 2), vol. 8, no. 215.
87. For extensive coverage of the Ridge and Boudinot assassinations, see New York Journal of Commerce, July 17, 18, 22, 30, and 31, 1839. See also Little Rock [AR] Gazette, July 17, 1839; The Daily Picayune (New Orleans), July 18, 1839; Houston Telegraph and Texas Register, September 18, 1839; Connecticut Courant, August 3, 1839; New York Commercial Advertiser, August 17, 1839; New Hampshire Sentinel, August 14, 1839; New Bedford [MA] Mercury, August 9, 1839; The Farmer’s Cabinet (Amherst, NH), July 26 and August 9, 1839. The comment on John Ridge appears in the Portsmouth [NH] Journal of Literature and Politics, August 3, 1839. The comment on Major Ridge is in the Houston Telegraph and Texas Register, September 18, 1839. The comment on Elias Boudinot and the quoted reference to the Foreign Mission School appear in “The Cherokee and His Beautiful Bride,” The Cabinet (Schenectady, NY), August 6, 1839.
88. Samuel Worcester to Daniel B. Brinsmade, June 26, 1839, FMS Archive, folder 14; Delight Sargent Boudinot to Mr. & Mrs. Brinsmade, July 18, 1839, FMS Archive, folder 14.