Alexander

by Guy Maclean Rogers

  translated as “Protector of men.”

  77 “If it really happened” Arrian, 2.12.8.

  CHAPTER 8 Master of Sieges

  78 surrendered it Arrian, 2.13.7–8.

  78 letter from Darius Arrian, 2.14.1.

  78 friendship and alliance Arrian, 2.14.2–3; Curtius, 4.1.7–10.

  79 seek him out Arrian, 2.14.4–9.

  81 on two fronts Keegan, J., The Mask of Command (New York, 1987), pp. 27–28. Keegan

  characteristically has understood with great acuity the problems facing Alexander at the time.

  81 Byblos and Sidon Arrian, 2.15.6.

  81 in his place Curtius, 4.1.16–26.

  81 might give them Arrian, 2.15.6–7.

  81 sacrifice to Herakles Arrian, 2.15.7.

  81 Alexander’s sovereignty Arrian, 2.16.7.

  81 the Persians alike Arrian, 2.16.7.

  82 military preparations Diodorus, 17.40.3.

  82 the Persian fleet Arrian, 2.17.1–4.

  82 must be captured Presumably as opposed to invested and left behind, just as the Macedonians

  had done at Halicarnassos.

  82 had achieved Arrian, 2.18.1.

  82 lofty walls Arrian, 2.18.2.

  82 to the island city Diodorus, 17.40.4–5.

  82 on the mole Arrian, 2.18.6.

  82 the siege engines Arrian, 2.19.1–5.

  83 new siege engines Arrian, 2.19.6.

  83 lost momentum Arrian, 2.20.1–3.

  83 without further peril Plutarch, 24.6–8, based upon Chares.

  83 to reinforce the army Arrian, 2.20.5.

  83 the Tyrian fleet Arrian, 2.20.10.

  83 length of the wall Arrian, 2.22.7.

  84 toward the royal quarters Arrian, 2.23.4–6.

  84 undefended northern harbor Arrian, 2.24.1–2.

  84 were pursued Arrian, 2.24.2.

  84 deserting the city Diodorus, 17.41.7–8.

  84 8,000 Tyrians were killed Arrian, 2.24.4.

  84 descendant of Herakles Diodorus, 17.46.4.

  84 women and children Diodorus, 17.46.4.

  84 some ancient custom Arrian, 2.24.5.

  84 war against Syracuse Curtius, 4.2.10–11, 4.3.19–20.

  84 formal declaration of war Curtius, 4.4.18.

  84 wall to the temple Arrian, 2.24.6.

  84 friend of Alexander Diodorus, 17.46.6.

  85 bodies into the sea Arrian, 2.24.3.

  85 rage of the Macedonians Arrian, 2.24.3.

  85 the historian intended Arrian, 2.24.2.

  85 “the siege bravely” Diodorus, 17.46.5, translation from Welles (1963), p. 81.

  85 protracted siege Arrian, 2.25.4.

  85 to November 332 Arrian, 2.26.1. For a good, brief account of the siege, see Romane, P.,

  “Alexander’s Siege of Gaza—332 B.C.,” AncW 18 (1988), pp. 21–30.

  86 could not dodge Curtius, 4.6.7–20.

  86 sold into slavery Arrian, 2.27.1–7.

  86 with the gods Plutarch, 25.4–5; Hammond (1997), p. 5.

  86 around the walls of Troy Curtius, 4.6.29.

  CHAPTER 9 The Gift of the River

  87 “gift of the river” Herodotus, 2.5.1.

  88 as Plutarch claimed Plutarch, Moralia, 328.e.

  88 at Wejh in April 1917 Lawrence, T., Seven Pillars of Wisdom, with an introduction by M. Asher

  (London, 2000), pp. 174–179.

  88 before Alexander’s arrival Kuhrt (1995), p. 123.

  88 king Cambyses II Kuhrt (1995), pp. 661–664.

  88 Alexander arrived Kuhrt (1995), p. 646.

  89 entry into Egypt Arrian, 3.1.1–2.

  89 Napoleon in 1798 Chandler, D., The Campaigns of Napoleon (London, 2002), pp. 222–232.

  89 as a liberator Diodorus, 17.49.2.

  89 performers in Greece Arrian, 3.1.3–4.

  89 Egyptian god Ptah Arrian, 3.1.4.

  89 the Apis bull Herodotus, 3.27.1–29.3.

  89 (alleged) Persian sacrilege Kuhrt (1995), p. 664.

  89 pharaoh in Memphis Stoneman (1991), 1.34, p. 68.

  89 a libation to the god Bosworth (1988), pp. 70–71.

  90 after sailing upstream Curtius, 4.7.5.

  90 the god there Arrian, 3.3.1.

  90 their own Zeus For the historical background, see Classen, D., “The Libyan God Ammon in

  Greece Before 331 B.C.,” Historia 8 (1959), pp. 349–355. Lane Fox (1973), pp. 190–205, supplies

  an evocative narrative.

  90 and in Olympia Pausanias, Description of Greece, 3.18.3, 5.15.11.

  90 and its god Pythian Ode 4.5.9; Pausanias, Description of Greece, 3.18.3.

  90 Athens’ Port Inscriptiones Graecae, 2 2 1496, line 95; Lane Fox (1973), p. 193.

  90 consulted Zeus Ammon Arrian, 3.3.1.

  90 Antaeus and Busiris Arrian, 3.3.1.

  90 that he had Arrian, 3.3.2.

  91 visit Libya Curtius, 4.7.9.

  91 facing civil unrest Bosworth (1988), p. 72.

  91 200 miles from the coast Arrian, 3.3.3.

  91 outright inventions Such as birds calling back those who had straggled away from the main party

  in the night, as cited by Plutarch, 27.3. For the criticisms, see Jacoby (1962), 124 F14, pp. 421–422.

  Timaeus, in Polybius, Histories, 12.12b.2.

  91 out of water Diodorus, 17.49.3.

  91 quantities of rain Diodorus, 17.49.4.

  91 Zeus Ammon himself Arrian, 3.3.4.

  91 back again from it Arrian, 3.3.5.

  91 acting as guides Arrian, 3.3.6; Plutarch, 27.3.

  91 in the Libyan desert Having traveled through the desert in the area recently, I can attest to the

  continuing presence of all three phenomena.

  92 protect the king Kuhrt (1995), p. 148.

  92 in eight days Diodorus, 17.49.3–5.

  92 its copious trees Arrian, 3.4.1. For a modern description of the oasis and the excavation of the

  ancient site there, see Fakhry, A., Siwa Oasis, Its Customs, History and Monuments (Cairo, 1950).

  92 olive and palm trees Arrian, 3.4.1.

  92 the Spring of the Sun Diodorus, 17.50.4.

  92 coldest at noon Arrian, 3.4.2.

  92 now called Aghurmi Bosworth (1988), p. 73.

  92 for a while Probably the egg-shaped stone representation of the god described on page 89.

  92 “Greetings, O son” Diodorus, 17.51.1, translation slightly adapted from Welles (1963), p. 265.

  92 “I accept, O father” Diodorus, 17.51.2, translation slightly adapted from Welles (1963), p. 265.

  93 “O son of Zeus” Plutarch, 27.5.

  93 (or mankind) Diodorus, 17.51.2; Curtius, 4.7.26; Plutarch, 27.4.

  93 his father’s murder Diodorus, 17.51.2; Curtius, 4.7.27; Plutarch, 27.3.

  93 the god directed them Perhaps as a result of the weight of the stone and the boat.

  93 asked of the god Curtius, 4.7.24; Bosworth (1988), p. 73.

  93 granted Alexander his request Diodorus, 17.51.2.

  93 had been avenged Plutarch, 27.4.

  94 his heart desired Arrian, 3.4.5.

  94 to other gods Arrian, 6.19.4.

  94 the Outer Ocean For more on Alexander, Ammon, and the significance of Alexander’s visit to

  the oracle, see Fredericksmeyer, E., “Alexander, Zeus Ammon, and the Conquest of Asia,” TAPA 121

  (1991), pp. 199–214.

  95 off for Egypt Diodorus, 17.51.4.

  95 visit to the oracle Diodorus, 17.52.1–7; Curtius, 4.8.1–3.

  95 by the same route According to Aristobulus, cited in Arrian, 3.4.5. Ptolemy, however, reports

  that Alexander took a different route and went directly to Memphis. The conflict between these

  contemporary sources, whose reports are found in Arrian, perhaps can be explained by Arrian’s

  methodology, as Bosworth (1988), p. 74, has argued. If Ptolemy skipped over the intermediate stages

  of the journey back to Memphis,
then Arrian perhaps inferred that Alexander took the direct route

  back to Memphis across the eastern desert. If not, the sources are in irresolvable contradiction. Such

  contradictions among primary sources are frustrating reminders that there are times when we simply

  no longer can know with certainty what happened in the past.

  95 later, Roman tradition Bosworth (1988), p. 74.

  95 April 7, 331 b.c.e. For the development of the city, see Fraser, P., Ptolemaic Alexandria, volumes

  1–2 (Oxford, 1972); and for the scholarly debates over the dating of the foundation, Jouguet, P., “La

  date Alexandrine de la fondation d’Alexandrie,” RÉA 42 (1940), pp. 192–197; and Bagnall, R., “The

  Date of the Foundation of Alexandria,” AJAH 4 (1979), pp. 46–49.

  95 city in Egypt Diodorus, 17.52.1; Plutarch, 26.2; Arrian, 3.1.5; Curtius, 4.8.1–2.

  95 its general layout Arrian, 3.1.5.

  95 stood by his side Plutarch, 26.3.

  95 “Out of the tossing sea” Odyssey, 4. 354–355, quoted in Scott-Kilvert (1973), p. 281.

  95 military cloak, the chlamys Plutarch, 26.5.

  95 every nation Plutarch, 26.5–6.

  96 with a large population Curtius, 4.8.5.

  96 its circuit wall Arrian, 3.1.5.

  96 increasingly have disclosed E.g., Goddio, F., Alexandria: The Submerged Royal Quarters

  (London, 1998).

  96 Middle and Near East Meineke, A., Stepahnos Byzantinii ΕΘΝΙΚΩΝ (A Geographical Lexicon

  on Ancient Cities, Peoples, Tribes and Toponyms) (Chicago, 1992), pp. 70–72, s.v. “Alexandrias.”

  For an astute critique of Stephanus’ list, essentially concluding that most of Alexander’s foundations

  that can be documented were part of a policy of commercial and strategic consolidation in the

  interests of imperial rule, see Fraser, P., Cities of Alexander the Great (Oxford, 1996), esp. pp. 188–

  190.

  97 and musical contests Arrian, 3.5.2.

  97 rules is divine Plutarch, 27.6. Plutarch places the anecdote after his account of Alexander’s visit

  to Siwah.

  97 especially his own Plutarch, 27.6.

  97 time or not Because the name Psammon appears to be unique (that is, it appears only here in

  classical literature), some scholars have argued that Psammon never existed and his exchange with

  Alexander never took place. By the same logic, because we have no other examples of individuals

  who could trace their ancestry to the tribe of Benjamin but also were citizens of a Greek city (Tarsus)

  and were citizens of Rome as well, a certain Saul of Tarsos never existed.

  97 both men and gods Iliad, 1.503, 533; Burkert, W., Greek Religion (Cambridge, 1985), p. 129.

  97 theme of the Iliad Nagy, G., The Best of the Achaeans (Baltimore, 1999), pp. 26–41.

  97 blue eyes and red hair Lesher, J. Xenophones of Colophon: Fragments (Toronto, 1992),

  fragment 16, p. 25.

  98 also were made Arrian, 3.5.2–6.

  99 equites, or knights Arrian, 3.5.7. For the Roman practices, see Tacitus, Annals, 2.5.9; Histories,

  1.11; Dio Cassius, Roman History, 51.17.

  CHAPTER 10 The Battle of Gaugamela

  100 in charge of Syria Curtius, 4.8.9–11.

  100 anticipated great labors Arrian, 3.6.1.

  100 the money Plutarch, 29.3.

  100 Diophantus and Achilles, arrived Envoys with names of heroes to whom Alexander supposedly

  was related obviously were chosen to take part in the embassy to flatter Alexander.

  100 battle of the Granicus Arrian, 3.6.2.

  100 two years before Arrian, 1.29.5–6.

  101 prisoners of war Arrian, 3.6.3.

  101 to the Spartans Arrian, 3.6.3.

  101 in the Peloponnese Arrian, 3.6.3.

  101 rule of the whole empire Diodorus, 17.54.2.

  101 “If I were Alexander” Diodorus, 17.54.3–5.

  101 by Alexander’s generosity Diodorus, 17.54.5–6.

  102 died, in childbirth Plutarch, 30.1.

  102 sumptuous funeral Diodorus, 17.54.7.

  102 his wife’s misfortune Plutarch, 30.4–7.

  103 had taken up arms For the complete list, see Arrian, 3.8.3–6.

  103 book 2 of the Iliad Iliad, 2.494–759.

  103 according to Arrian Arrian, 3.8.6.

  103 carried into battle Diodorus, 17.53.1.

  103 from the sides Diodorus, 17.53.2.

  103 Macedonian cavalry charge Arrian, 3.8.6.

  104 at his disposal Diodorus, 17.53.4.

  104 crossing of the Euphrates Arrian, 3.7.1.

  104 the Zagros Mountains Bosworth (1988), p. 78.

  104 the movement of cavalry Arrian, 3.8.7.

  104 spoken by his soldiers Diodorus, 17.53.4.

  104 cross the river Arrian, 3.7.1–2. For a monograph on the campaign, see Marsden, E., The

  Campaign of Gaugamela (Liverpool, 1964).

  105 (the Assyrian city in northwestern Mesopotamia) Destroyed along with its famous temple of

  the moon-god Sin, but rebuilt by the Babylonian Nabonidus; see Kuhrt (1995), p. 600.

  105 the Tigris River Arrian, 3.7.3–4; Bosworth (1988), p. 79.

  105 the swift current Arrian, 3.7.5; Stein, A., “Notes on Alexander’s Crossing of the Tigris and the

  Battle of Arbela,” Geographical Journal 100 (1942), pp. 155–164.

  105 eclipse of the moon Arrian, 3.7.6.

  105 September 20, 331 Bosworth (1988), p. 79.

  105 sacrifices portended victory Arrian, 3.7.6.

  105 accurately assessed Arrian, 3.7.7.

  105 with a powerful force Arrian, 3.8.1–2.

  105 for four days Arrian, 3.9.1.

  105 unfit for duty Arrian, 3.9.1.

  105 the enormous enemy host Arrian, 3.9.3.

  107 inspect the terrain Arrian, 3.9.3–5; for the battle and Alexander’s tactics see Devine, A.,

  “Grand Tactics at Gaugamela,” Phoenix 29 (1975), pp. 374–385.

  107 the common success Arrian, 3.9.5–8.

  107 face imminent combat For such “pep” talks, see Lloyd, A., “Philip II and Alexander the Great:

  The Moulding of Macedon’s Army,” in Battle in Antiquity, ed. A. Lloyd (London, 1996), pp. 180–

  181.

  107 eat and rest Arrian, 3.10.1.

  107 and without stratagem Arrian, 3.10.2.

  107 contrary to expectation Surely, the locus classicus for the vicissitudes of warfare at night, and

  especially the dangers it often brought to those who initiated it, is Thucydides’ description of the

  attempted seizure of the small city-state of Plataea by some three hundred Thebans at the beginning of

  the Peloponnesian War ( The Peloponnesian War, book 2, pp. 2–6).

  108 in a hostile country Arrian, 3.10.3–4.

  108 first and only time Plutarch, 31.4.

  108 review of them by torchlight Plutarch, 31.4.

  108 more than anything else Arrian, 3.11.2.

  108 while Alexander overslept Plutarch, 32.1.

  109 two or three times Plutarch, 32.1.

  109 fled the fight Plutarch, 32.2.

  109 hands afterward Arrian, 3.11.3.

  109 Cadusian contingents Arrian, 3.11.3.

  109 Albanians and Sacesinians Arrian, 3.11.4.

  109 deep formation behind them Arrian, 3.11.5.

  109 king’s cavalry Arrian, 3.11.6.

  109 his Persian guard Arrian, 3.11.7.

  112 used thus far Devine, A., “The Macedonian Army at Gaugamela,” AncW 19 (1989), pp. 77–80.

  112 Polyperchon, and Simmias Arrian, 3.11.8–9.

  112 Thessalian cavalry Arrian, 3.11.10.

  112 coming from the rear Arrian, 3.12.1.

  112 mercenaries under Cleander Arrian, 3.12.2.

  112 cavalry under Menidas Arr
ian, 3.12.3.

  112 Persian scythed chariots Arrian, 3.12.3.

  113 about 40,000 infantry Arrian, 3.12.4–5.

  113 against the barbarians Plutarch, 33.1.

  113 his sword in battle Plutarch, 32.5–6.

  113 anyone else nearby Curtius, 4.13.38.

  113 now mounted on Bucephalas Plutarch, 32.7. It was Alexander’s practice to use another horse as

  long as he was riding up and down his lines before battle but to mount Bucephalas for the attack itself.

  113 strengthen the Greeks Plutarch, 33.1, quoting Callisthenes, and thus, what Alexander wanted to

  be reported about his actions at the beginning of the battle. This prayer probably should be seen as

  confirmation that Alexander had been told something by the oracle of Zeus Ammon about his divine

  parentage.

  114 with great courage Plutarch, 33.2.

  114 most dear to Zeus Burkert, W., Greek Religion (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 127–128.

  114 farther to that side Arrian, 3.13.1.

  114 out to their left Arrian, 3.13.2.

  114 soldier of his day Keegan, J., The Mask of Command (New York, 1987), p. 86.

  114 the Companion cavalry For the importance of force economizing here and in other battles, see

  Fuller (1960), pp. 298–299.

  115 devastating counterattack Devine, A., “The Battle of Gaugamela: A Tactical and Source-

  Critical Study,” AncW 13 (1986), pp. 108–109.

  115 not into disorder Devine, A., “The Battle of Gaugamela: A Tactical and Source-Critical

  Study,” AncW 13 (1986), p. 109.

  115 broke the enemy formation Arrian, 3.13.3–4.

  115 Alexander’s grooms Arrian, 3.13.5–6. The role of the royal guards in dealing with this attack as

  reported by Arrian is hard to square with their placement (by Arrian, at 3.11.9) in the front line.

  115 the first onslaught Diodorus, 17.59.5.

  115 we are told Diodorus, 17.59.7.

  115 gave ground Diodorus, 17.59.8.

  116 direction of Darius himself Arrian, 3.14.2.

  116 victory to one side “Correspondence de Napoléon Iier, ‘Précis des guerres de J. César,’”

  volume 32, p. 27, quoted by Fuller, J., The Generalship of Alexander the Great (New Brunswick,

  1960), p. 298.

  116 rode for safety Arrian, 3.14.3.

  116 was having difficulties Arrian, 3.14.4.

  116 these Indians and Persians Arrian, 3.14.5–6.

  116 dispatch rider Arrian, 3.15.1. The dispatch rider, identified subsequently as a certain

  Polydamas, later was to play a crucial role in the assassination of Parmenio; see Curtius, 4.15.6.