Inside the Centre: The Life of J. Robert Oppenheimer
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528. ‘That was the moment’: ibid., 456
528. ‘But what about Slotnick’s calculation?’: ibid.
528. ‘I had fun with that’: ibid.
529. ‘We will start work’: Pais (2006), 117
529. ‘We had lovely weather’: Schweber (1994), 552
529. ‘Feynman’s show’: Pais (2006), 117
529. ‘began its rapid’: ibid.
529. ‘a real sense’: Schweber (1994), 178
530. ‘is known’: Feynman (1990), 3
530. ‘At the present time’: ibid., 7
530. ‘We physicists’: ibid., 8
17. Massive Retaliation
531. ‘The Open Mind’: Oppenheimer (1955), 45–57
531. ‘We need to remember’: ibid., 54
531. ‘appear to commit us’: ibid., 53
531. ‘they would need them’: ibid., 56
532. ‘More & more physicists’: Time magazine, 8 November 1948, 70
532. his appearance before HUAC: see Stern (1971), 118–22, B & S, 394–6, and ITMO, 210–16. Schweber (2000), 118–30, has an excellent account both of the hearing and of its repurcussions.
533. ‘Mr Chairman’: B & S, 396
533. ‘a dangerous man and quite Red’: ibid., 395
533. ‘violently denounced’: ibid.
533. ‘too constitutional’: Stern (1971), 120
533. ‘Incidents in Germany’: ITMO, 211
534. ‘It was well known’: ibid.
534. ‘Before we adjourn’: Stern (1971), 122
534. called before the committee the very next day: ibid., 123
534. ‘God guided their questions’: ibid., 124. See also ITMO, 213, where Oppenheimer is asked twice whether he said this. The first time he denies it, the second time he says he does not remember saying it.
534. a Rochester newspaper: the story is reproduced in full in Schweber (2000), 119–20
535. ‘because of his intransigence’: ibid., 123
535. ‘If Peters loses his job’: ibid., 123–4
535. ‘lost a good deal of sleep’: ibid., 125
535. Bethe’s letter: ibid.
535. ‘rather dismal’: ibid., 127
536. ‘a not very successful piece’: ibid.
536. ‘I think mostly’: Michelmore (1969), 156
536. Frank’s turn: Stern (1971), 130–2, B & S, 402–5
536. front-page story: the front page in question is reproduced in Goodchild (1969), 187
536. said he had never been a Communist Party member: see ibid., 188
536. he had been to see J.W. Buchta: Cole (2009), 91
537. More than fifty physicists: ibid., 92
537. ‘never agreed with Frank’: ibid., 93
537. ‘Jackie was absolutely furious’: ibid., 95
537. ‘Come back’: ibid., 85
537. ‘Frank Oppenheimer is no longer welcome’: ibid.
537. ‘What is going on?’: B & S, 403–4
538. simply dismissed Strauss’s concerns: Stern (1971), 114, 128. See also B & S, 164, and Rhodes (1996), 311
538. ‘incredible mismanagement’: Rhodes (1996), 359
538. ‘inimical to our national defense’: Pais (2006), 165
538. ‘sat in the front row’: Bernstein (2004), 108
538. The specific issue at hand: see ibid., 107
539. ‘No one’: Stern (1971), 129
539. ‘Even to an observer’: ibid.
539. ‘one eye on Oppenheimer’: ibid.
539. ‘My own rating’: ibid., 129–30
539. ‘Well, Joe’: ibid., 130
539. ‘There was a look of hatred’: ibid.
539. the cover of Life magazine: Life, 10 October 1949
539. ‘the best picture’: Pais (2006), 141
539. ‘Equations at top of the board’: Life, 10 October 1949, 120
540. ‘although he tried’: ibid., 134
540. ‘off doing the devil’s work’: ibid., 121
541. ‘Almost every month’: ibid., 122
541. ‘what we are forced to call’: ibid., 123
541. ‘what is at the moment’: ibid., 123–4
541. ‘the world’s foremost center’: ibid., 121
541. ‘devoted most of his investigative efforts’: ibid., 132
541. introduced the term ‘lepton’: see Pais (1986), 450
542. ‘Models and Methods in the Meson Theory’: Yukawa (1949)
542. a short paragraph: Oppenheimer (1949a)
542. a short, co-written article: Oppenheimer and Arnold (1950)
542. ‘Of his manifold activities’: Life, 10 October 1949, 138
543. ‘the news that Russia has at last’: ibid., 121
543. The evidence for the Soviet bomb: Rhodes (1996), 368–74
543. ‘We have evidence’: see ‘The Russian Explosion: Mr Truman’s Announcement’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. V, No. 10, October 1949, 261
543. ‘What shall we do?’: Goodchild (1980), 197
544. ‘We should now’: Strauss (1962), 216–17
544. ‘it was highly probable’: Teller (2001), 281
544. ‘In the present situation’: ibid.
544. ‘Having the Super weapon’: ITMO, 683
545. Teller set off: see Teller (2001), 283
545. ‘over my dead body’: ibid.
545. ‘Probably Oppenheimer wanted’: Hershberg (1993), 472
545. Hershberg, has speculated: ibid., 875
545. ‘On the technical side’: JRO to JBC, 21.10.1949, JRO papers, LOC, reprinted in full in ITMO, 242–3
546. ‘I told Ernest’: Serber (1998), 168
546. ‘that the United States’: ibid., 169
546. ‘perhaps the most important one’: Pais (2006), 173
547. ‘The clear implication’: Seaborg (2001), 142
547. ‘I expressed my opinion’: ibid.
547. ‘Although I deplore’: ITMO, 238
547. George Kennan: ibid., 358–9
548. ‘I met Luis’: Serber (1998), 169–70
548. ‘mostly psychological’: Lilienthal (1964), 581, also Rhodes (1996), 397–8
548. ‘He said that he did not think’: ITMO, 785
548. ‘the program’: ibid.
548. ‘interesting talk’: Herken (2002), 207
548. ‘decision to go ahead’: Lilienthal (1964), 581
548. ‘one must explore it’: ibid.
549. Three reports: all three are published in full as the Appendix to York (1976), 150–68
549. ‘an intensification’: ibid., 152
549. ‘seeing the same film’: Lilienthal (1964), 581
550. ‘We believe’: York (1976), 154
550. ‘it has generally been estimated’: ibid., 155
550. ‘It is clear’: York (1976), 155
550. ‘Although’: ibid., 155–6
550. ‘weapon of genocide’: ibid., 157
551. ‘We believe a super bomb should never be produced’: ibid.
551. ‘Should they use’: ibid.
551. ‘In determining’: ibid.
551. ‘necessarily an evil thing’: ibid., 158
551. ‘the nations of the world’: ibid., 159
551. ‘should with considerable regret’: ITMO, 395
551. ‘enough be declassified’: York (1976), 156
551. ‘did not tell me’: Teller (2001), 283–4
551. ‘Washington’: ibid., 284
551. ‘There are also forces’: ibid., 285
551. ‘Before I could say anything’: ibid., 286
552. ‘into a single sovereignty’: Borden (1946), 41
552. ‘Weisskopf vividly described to me’: Bernstein (1981), 93
552. ‘He was disappointed’: ibid., 94
552. the AEC met: see Rhodes (1996), 404
553. ‘came back feeling happy’: ibid.
553. ‘You know’: ibid., 405
553. ‘If we let Russia get the super first’: Bundy (1988), 211
554. ‘would improve our defense’: Rhodes (1996), 406
554. ‘made a lot of sense’: ibid., 407
554. ‘What the Hell are we waiting for?’: ibid.
554. ‘to continue its work’: ibid.
554. ‘alerted the world’: Bernstein (2004), 121
554. ‘I never forgave Truman’: ibid.
554. Oppenheimer did not even bother: Pfau (1984), 123
554. ‘You don’t look jubilant’: Goodchild (1980), 204
554. Abraham Pais has taken: Pais (2006), 177
555. ‘prudential and game-theoretical terms’: Pharr Davis (1968), 330. The remark comes from a talk Oppenheimer gave in 1959 to the Congress for Cultural Freedom. See Chapter 19 below, page 646
556. a series of shocking revelations: see, e.g., Rhodes (1996), Chapter 21, Sibley (2004), Chapter Five, and West (2004), Chapters VII and VIII
556. McCarthy launched the era: on McCarthyism, see Fried (1997b), Haynes (1996), Morgan (2003), Rovere (1996), Schrecker (1994) and Schrecker (1998)
556. ‘here in my hand’: Rovere (1996), 125
556. ‘will make a good many men’: Rhodes (1996), 412
557. senator for Colorado, Edwin Johnson: see Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, VI (3), March 1950, 66
557. ‘Our scientists’: ibid.
557. ‘naïve and monumental indiscretion’: ibid., 67
557. ‘make a solemn declaration’: ibid., 75
558. ‘There is grave danger’: ibid. Cf. Schweber (2000), 160
558. ‘Hydrogen bombs’: Schweber (2000), 161
558. ‘I had a long talk with Oppie’: McMillan (2005), 68
558. ‘Back to the Laboratories!’: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, VI (3), March 1950, 71–2
558. ‘Our scientific community’: ibid., 72
558. ‘In my mind’: Wheeler (2000), 199
558. ‘was a great disappointment’: ibid., 199–200
559. ‘Let Teller and Wheeler go ahead’: ibid., 200
559. ‘. . . the hydrogen bomb can’t be done’: ibid.
559. ‘Things have advanced’: ET to JRO, 17.2.1950, JRO papers, LOC
559. ‘regarded as a matter’: Rhodes (1996), 421
559. an article by Bethe: Bethe (1950)
559. ‘Whether the temperatures required’: ibid., 101
560. ‘I still believe’: Schweber (2000), 163
560. ‘In case of war’: ibid., 164
560. ‘With his wonderful virtuosity’: Ulam (1991), 216
560. ‘was not easily reconciled’: ibid.
560. ‘seemed rather glad’: ibid., 217
561. ‘We all agree’: ITMO, 788
561. ‘The panel contained’: ibid., 684
562. ‘In fact’: Hewlett and Duncan (1969), 531. See also Libby (1979), 312, and Goodchild (1980), 208
562. ‘Luis, how could you’: ITMO, 788
562. ‘You go back’: ibid., 789
562. ‘Comments on the Military Value of the Atom’: Oppenheimer (1951)
562. ‘To the first impression’: ibid., 43
562. ‘of the specific use’: ibid., 44
563. ‘strategic air warfare’: ibid.
563. ‘Much of what was clear’: ibid.
563. ‘the extreme form’: ibid., 45
563. ‘I cannot believe’: ibid., 45
563. ‘Project Vista’: see Elliot (1986), upon which my account is based
563. ‘the possible tactical employment’: ibid., 164
563. ‘study group’: ibid.
564. ‘expressed the feeling’: ibid.
564. fee of $600,000: ibid., 167
564. ‘All of us’: ibid., 169
564. ‘On the other hand’: Vista Report, Vol. 1, 3, quoted ibid., 170
564. ‘explosion’: ibid., 174
565. Oppenheimer was no longer to be used: York (1976), 139
565. ‘We have found no great new weapons’: McCray (2004), 361
565. a yield of between one and fifty kilotons: Elliot (1986), 172
566. ‘to send material down a tube’: Rhodes (1996), 457
566. ‘like using a blast furnace’: ibid.
566. ‘new and elaborate instrumentation’: ibid., 460
567. ‘staring intensely’: ibid., 463
567. ‘From then on’: ibid., 467
567. ‘Edward is full of enthusiasm’: ibid.
567. ‘The new concept’: ibid., 468
567. In a series of papers: see ibid., 467–470
567. ‘The sequence is fission-fusion-fission’: Bernstein (2004), 126
568. ‘On Heterocatalytic Detonations’: Rhodes (1996), 467–8, also McMillan (2005), 102–3
568. 225 kilotons: Rhodes (1996), 474
568. ‘When I came out of the water’: ibid.
568. yielded twenty-five kilotons: ibid.
568. The agenda for the meeting: ibid., 475
568. ‘The outcome’: ITMO, 20
569. ‘It is my judgment’: ibid., 81
569. ‘a sweet and lovely and beautiful job’: ibid., 229
569. code-named ‘Mike’: for a detailed account of the Mike test, see Rhodes (1996), Chapter 24.
570. ‘In spite of the remarkable success’: Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering, Volume 6, The National Academies Press, 1993, 73–6 (quotation, 76)
570. ‘Somewhat negative’: Teller (2001), 327
570. ‘If I’d given him control’: Rhodes (1996), 479
570. ‘makes its very existence’: York (1976). The words are in the minority report written by Rabi and Fermi, but the general report makes similar points, and there is no doubt that the sentiments expressed by Rabi and Fermi were widely shared among the members of the GAC.
570. ‘a chunk of the atmosphere’: Teller (2001), 332
571. ‘A lot of us were really teed-off at Edward’: Rhodes (1996), 479
571. ‘neither necessary’: Oppenheimer to Dean, 13.10.1951, JRO papers, LOC
571. ‘among the very best’: Teller (2001), 335
571. ‘You have to choose’: Serber (1998), 172
572. ‘a courteous man’: Teller (2001), 333
572. ‘Strauss told me’: ibid., 334
572. ‘I think it would be fair to say’: ibid., 336
573. ‘has the reputation’: Schweber (2000), 147
573. ‘delayed or attempted to delay’: B & S, 443
573. ‘a lot of people believe’: ibid.
573. ‘would do most anything’: Rhodes (1996), 537
573. ‘I want to say’: ITMO, 748
573. ‘We felt at the time’: ibid., 746
574. ‘crucial interview’: Teller (2001), 338
574. on 9 June 1952: Herken (2002), 254
574. When Thomas Murray visited Berkeley: Herken (2002), 249
574. gave a speech: ibid.
574. ‘now is doubtful’: FBI San Francisco office to JEH, 5.4.1952, JRO FBI file
575. ‘Some of the “boys” have their axe out’: Hershberg (1993), 600. Herken (2002), 250, quotes the same diary entry, worded slightly differently. I am assuming that, of the two, Hershberg is the more accustomed to Conant’s handwriting.
575. ‘vitriolic talk’: Herken (2002), 249
575. Hoover sent transcripts of those interviews: ibid.
575. ‘I didn’t really expect’: ITMO, 752
575. ‘suggested that we had’: ibid., 753
576. ‘As near as I can recall’: ibid., 754
576. ‘and I believe’: ibid.
576. ‘paranoid’: ibid.
576. ‘Dr Griggs had been’: ibid., 339
576. ‘a pillar of honesty’: Libby (1979), 307
576. ‘strongly built’: ibid.
576. ‘I remember’: ibid., 311
577. ‘I don’t think you fellows’: Stern (1971), 190
577. ‘Lee DuBridge and I are through’: Hershberg (1993), 601
577. ‘he is very much
concerned’: FBI San Francisco office to JEH, 5.4.1952, JRO FBI file
577. ‘believed it would be extremely wise’: FBI report by L. Hoyt McGuire, Chicago office, 9.5.1952, JRO FBI file
578. ‘worked out a plan’: Goodchild (1980), 213
578. ‘magnificent’: ITMO, 96
578. ‘deep sense of personal regret’: ibid.
578. ‘lasting and immensely valuable’: ibid., 97
580. ‘technical, military, and economic questions’: ITMO, 598
580. ‘We decided we would’: ibid.
581. ‘ZORC’: ibid., 750
581. ‘in order to achieve world peace’: ibid., 749
581. ‘the background’: ibid., 750
581. ‘Griggs. I should say’: ibid., 763
581. announced on 28 April 1952: see Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, June 1952, 133. For a detailed account of this panel, see Bernstein (1989)
582. ‘would not require inspection and control’: Bernstein (1989), 141
582. ‘point of no return’: ibid., 143
582. ‘is irrevocably committed’: ibid., 143–4
583. ‘whose destructive and retaliatory power’: quoted Wells (1981), 41
583. ‘The most reasonable explanation’: ibid., 42
583. ‘man for man’: Life, 19 May 1952, 151
583. ‘of means to hit’: ibid.
583. ‘Today’: ibid., 152
584. the fallout from the test: see Bernstein (1989), 143
584. on 9 October: ibid., 148
584. ‘felt that any such idea’: ibid., 148–9
584. ‘would certainly be pleased’: Rhodes (1996), 498
585. the first Ulam–Teller hydrogen bomb: the description that follows is based on that given in Rhodes (1996), Chapter 24
585. ‘You would swear’: ibid., 508
585. ‘It’s a boy’: ibid., 511
585. ‘Some people in the Air Force’: B & S, 451
586. ‘As we sat’: Teller (2001), 352
586. ‘I assured him’: ibid., 353
586. ‘had not thought’: ibid.
586. ‘was so huge’: ibid.
587. ‘our commitment’: Bernstein (1989), 154
587. five main proposals: ibid.
587. ‘Atomic Weapons and American Policy’: Oppenheimer (1955), 61–77
587. ‘became very vividly and painfully aware’: ITMO, 95
587. ‘the bright light’: Oppenheimer (1955), 61
587. ‘Openness’: ibid., 62
588. ‘The rule for the atom’: ibid., 63
588. ‘It is easy to say’: ibid.
588. ‘It is my opinion’: ibid., 65
588. ‘likely to be small comfort’: ibid.
588. ‘our twenty-thousandth bomb’: ibid., 66