by Adrian Raine
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13. Ibid.
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16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
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19. Raine, A., Mellingen, K., Liu, J. H., Venables, P. & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality and antisocial behavior at ages 17 and 23 years. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1627–35.
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21. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
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23. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
24. The p value for the difference in court convictions between the children in the enriched group compared with controls was .07, and employed a two-tailed test. We elected to be conservative, but given the a priori prediction that crime would be reduced (and not increased) by the intervention we could have argued for the use of a one-tailed test of significance, and thus the results would have been significant at p < .035.
25. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
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28. Raine et al., Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality.
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37. Berlin, F. S. (2005). Commentary: The impact of surgical castration on sexual recidivism risk among civilly committed sexual offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 33, 37–41.
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39. Reuters (2009). Poland okays forcible castration for pedophiles. September 25. http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/25/us-castration-idUSTRE58O4LE20090925.
40. Poland to castrate sex offenders. (2008). Belfast Telegraph, September 26. http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/poland-to-castrate-sex-offenders-13985385.html.
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43. A child sex offender in Wisconsin’s Penal Code 302.11 is defined as someone having intercourse with a child under the age of thirteen.
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48. Pappadopulos, E., Woolston, S., Chait, A., Perkins, M., Connor, D. F. & Jensen, P. S. (2006). Pharmacotherapy of aggression in children and adolescents: Efficacy and effect size. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15, 27–39.
49. The effect size quoted here for pharmacological treatment effects are Cohen’s d.
50. “Atypical antipsychotic
s” is the more formal term used to describe “newer generation” antipsychotics. While originally developed for the treatment of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar depression, over the past fifteen years they have been increasingly used to treat childhood aggression. Examples of atypicals would be risperidone and olanzapine. Their advantage, relative to their efficacy, is that atypical antipsychotics do not have the more severe side effects of more traditional antipsychotic medications such as tardive dyskinesia. Nevertheless they do have some side effects, including weight gain.
51. Effect sizes reported in this review of psychopharmacology of aggression are Cohen’s d.
52. Connor, D. F., Glatt, S. J., Lopez, I. D., Jackson, D. & Melloni, R. H. (2002). Psychopharmacology and aggression, vol. 1, A meta-analysis of stimulant effects on overt/covert aggression-related behaviors in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41, 253–61.
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62. Staller, J. A. (2007). Psychopharmacologic treatment of aggressive preschoolers: A chart review. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 31, 131–35.
63. The anticonvulsants used in this community study consisted of phenytoin, carbamazepine, and valproate.
64. Stanford, M. S., Helfritz, L. E., Conklin, S. M., Villemarette-Pittman, N. R., Greve, K. W., et al. (2005). A comparison of anticonvulsants in the treatment of impulsive aggression. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 13, 72–77.
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66. Stoll, A. L. (2001). The Omega-3 Connection. New York: Simon and Schuster.
67. Ibid., p. 150.
68. Raine, A. & Mahoomed, T. (2012). A Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Trial of Omega-3 on Aggression and Delinquency. Paper presentation, the Stockholm Symposium, Stockholm, Sweden, June 13.
69. Hibbeln, J. (2012). Personal communication. Philadelphia, April 12.
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74. Fontani, G., Corradeschi, F., Felici, A., Alfatti, F., Migliorini, S., et al. (2005). Cognitive and physiological effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 35, 691–99.
75. Hamazaki, T., Sawazaki, S., Itomura, M., Asaoka, E., Nagao, Y., et al. (1996). The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults: A placebo-controlled double-blind study. Journal of Clinical Investigation 97, 1129–33.
76. Gustafsson, P. A., Birberg-Thornberg, U., Duchen, K., Landgren, M., Malmberg, K., et al. (2010). EPA supplementation improves teacher-rated behaviour and oppositional symptoms in children with ADHD. Acta Paediatrica 99, 1540–49.
77. Hamazaki, T., Thienprasert, A., Kheovichai, K., Samuhaseneetoo, S., Nagasawa, T., et al. (2002). The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in elderly Thai subjects: a placebo-controlled double-blind study. Nutritional Neuroscience 5, 37–41. It should be noted that although DHA reduced aggression in university workers, this effect was not observed in villagers.
78. Zanarini, M. C. & Frankenburg, F. R. (2003). Omega-3 fatty acid treatment of women with borderline personality disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 167.
79. Stevens, L., Zhang, W., Peck, L., Kuczek, T., Grevstad, N., et al. (2003). EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors. Lipids 38, 1007–21.
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81. Smit, E. N., Muskiet, F. A. & Boersma, E. R. (2004). The possible role of essential fatty acids in the pathophysiology of malnutrition: A review. Prostaglandins, Leukorienes and Essential Fatty Acids 71, 241–50.
82. Not all studies have found that omega-3 supplementation reduces antisocial behavior; see, for example: Hirayama, S., Hamazaki, T. & Terasawa, K. (2004). Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A placebo-controlled double-blind study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58, 467–73. Another study failed to find effects in English schoolchildren: Kirby, A., Woodward, A., Jackson, S., Wang, Y. & Crawford, M. (2010). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigating the effects of omega-3 supplementation in children aged 8–10 years from a mainstream school population. Research in Developmental Disabilities 31, 718–30. Nevertheless, some studies with statistically nonsignificant findings still find a 29 percent reduction in aggression. See, for example: Hallahan, B., Hibbeln, J. R., Davis, J. M. & Garland, M. R. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with recurrent self-harm: Single-centre double-blind randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 190, 118–22.
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