The Anatomy of Violence

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The Anatomy of Violence Page 58

by Adrian Raine


  36. Department of Justice (2012). Assistant Attorney General Laurie Robinson announces departure from office of justice programs. Office of Public Affairs. Tuesday, January 3. http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2012/January/12-ag-005.html.

  37. Mitchell, O. (2005). A meta-analysis of race and sentencing research: Explaining the inconsistencies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 21, 439–66.

  38. Office of Justice Programs (2012). Homicide trends in the U.S.: Trends by race. Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/homicide/race.cfm.

  39. Cohen, A. (2011). Licensing parents. Bleeding Heart Libertarians. December 27. http://bleedingheartlibertarians.com/2011/12/licensing-parents-2/.

  40. State of California Department of Justice (2009). Megan’s Law homepage. http://www.meganslaw.ca.gov/.

  41. A conker is the seed from the horse-chestnut tree, about 1.5 inches in diameter. This traditional British game is played by putting a hole through the conker, threading it onto a piece of string, and swinging it to break the opponent’s conker, held vertically and stationary on a string. Health and safety concerns that have led to it being banned at school include the shards of the conker flying off into a child’s eye, and nut allergies, although personally I never had any problem myself playing conkers at school.

  42. Strickland, P. (2011). Sentences of imprisonment for public protection: Commons Library standard note. October 19. http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN06086.

  43. Although judges were originally mandated to impose a life sentence if the offender met IPP criteria, the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act of 2008 allowed judges more discretion.

  44. Taylor, R., Wasik, M. & Leng, R. (2004). The Criminal Justice Act 2003: Blackstone’s Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  45. Jacobson, J. & Hough, M. (2010). Unjust Deserts: Imprisonment for Public Protection. London: Prison Reform Trust.

  46. Ibid., p. 8.

  47. Duggan, C. (2011). Dangerous and severe personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 198, 431–33.

  48. Buchanan, A. & Grounds, A. (2011). Forensic psychiatry and public protection. British Journal of Psychiatry 198, 420–23.

  49. Ibid.

  50. Verkaik, R. (2004). Blair has not been tough on the causes of crime, says Woolf. The Independent (London), April 23.

  51. Mackintosh, N., Baddeley, A., Brownsworth, R., et al. (2011). Brain Waves Module 4: Neuroscience and the Law. London: The Royal Society.

  52. Profiling school shooters (2000). Frontline: The Killer at Thurston High. web article. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/profile/.

  53. Kellerman, J. (1999). Savage Spawn: Reflections on Violent Children. New York: Ballantine.

  54. Developmental and social-emotional screening of young children (0-6 years of age) in Minnesota. http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/fh/mch/devscrn/.

  55. Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B. & Lozano, R. (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization.

  56. Centers for Disease Control (2008). The Public Health Approach to Violence Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/overview/public health approach.html.

  57. Social Finance (2012). About Us. http://www.socialfinanceus.org/about.

  58. Social Finance (2012). History. http://www.socialfinanceus.org/work/history.

  59. Commonwealth of Massachusetts (2012). Massachusetts First State in the Nation to Pursue “Pay For Success” Social Innovation Contracts. Press release, January 18. http://www.mass.gov/anf/press-releases/ma-first-to-pursue-pay-for-success-contracts.html.

  60. Belkin, L. (2009). Should parenting require a license? New York Times. January 8. http://parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/08/should-parenting-require-a-license/.

  61. Tittle, P. (2004). Should Parents Be Licensed? Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.

  62. Leading articles (2012). Parental guidance suggested. The Times (London), p. 2, May 19.

  63. Farah, M. J. (2012). Neuroethics: The ethical, legal, and societal impact of neuroscience. Annual Review of Psychology 63, 571–91.

  64. Sterzer, P. (2010). Born to be criminal?: What to make of early biological risk factors for criminal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 1, ajp.psychiatryonline.org.

  65. Kellerman, Savage Spawn, pp. 109-11.

  66. Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2007). Saving Children from a Life of Crime: Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  67. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2006). Child Maltreatment. Washington, D.C.

  68. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

  69. LaFollette, H. (2010). Licensing parents revisited. Journal of Applied Philosophy 27, 327–43.

  70. Ibid.

  71. Couple who made boy, 11, live in a coal bunker jailed. (2012). The Independent (London), Courts section, May 29.

  72. Shami Chakrabarti was previously a barrister working for the Home Office, and later the director of Liberty, a civil-liberties pressure group in England. She is currently the chancellor of Oxford Brookes University in England. She is widely recognized as one of the most influential and effective public-affairs lobbyists in the U.K.

  73. The “If” Debate: A Newsnight Special (2004). BBC2. December 22. Prog ID 50/and/PS34L/77.

  74. In considering whether to kill Adolph Hitler you could also consider Mao, Stalin, Pol Pot, or a host of other leaders who have been responsible for enormous loss of life in many countries throughout the world. Pol Pot is thought to have killed about 20 percent of the Cambodian population in the later 1970s. Stalin executed nearly a million Russians just before World War II.

  75. Baynes, N. H. (1942). The Speeches of Adolf Hitler. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  76. Almost weekly vitriolic columns were written by Piet Grijs against Buikhuisen’s biological perspective in the influential and highly valued Vrij Nederland, a socialist critical weekly magazine.

  77. Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 984–88.

  78. Mann, C. (1994). War of words continues in violence research. Science 263, 1375.

  79. Ibid.

  80. Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction. Personality & Individual Differences 2, 273–83.

  81. The reconciliation of both the public and officials in the Netherlands with Wouter Buikhuisen is striking. In recognition of the earlier unfair ostracization of Buikhuisen for his biological perspective, a symposium was held to “rehabilitate” him on April 16, 2010, organized by criminology students with the support of the dean of the law school of Leiden University. On April 17, 2009, he gave a lecture on the amygdala to a fully packed college hall at Leiden University, and in November 2009 Leiden University formally reconciled with him. Full details of what is known in the Netherlands as the “Buikhuisen Affair” may be found in Keijning, L. (2006). Buikhuisen had wel wat uit te leggen. De affaire-Buikhuisen en de ontwikkeling van biosociaal onderzoek naar criminaliteit (Buikhuisen did have something to explain. The Buikhuisen affair and the development of biosocial research of criminality). Master’s thesis for Science and Technology Studies, Amsterdam University, 2006.

  82. Mann, War of words continues.

  83. Quotation from Winston Churchill in Bottomly, P., et al. (2011). Outdated approach to votes for prisoners. The Guardian. Letters, January 11.

  84. Pinker, S. (2011). The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. New York: Viking.

  85. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime.

  86. Gutmann, A. & Thompson, D. (2012). The Spirit of Compromise: Why Governing Demands It and Campaigning Undermines It. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

  87. Carlyle, T. (1855). Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches, p. 4
48. New York: Harper.

  Index

  Page numbers in italics refer to figures.

  Abel

  abortion, attempted

  acne, as XYY marker

  Adam and Eve

  “additive” affect, 8.1, 8.2

  adolescents

  aggression in, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 8.1, 9.1, 11.1

  antisocial behavior in, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 8.1, 8.2

  heart rate in

  in hypothetical future scenarios

  medication for aggression in

  as mothers

  murder of

  as psychopaths

  relational aggression in

  rule-breaking by

  schizophrenia in

  sex offenses against

  violence against

  violence by, 1.1, 4.1, 6.1, 11.1

  adoption, adoptees

  antisocial behavior in, 2.1, 8.1, 8.2

  screening for

  twins in

  adoption studies

  criticism of

  on fetal alcohol syndrome

  on heritability, 2.1, 2.2

  adrenaline

  Adventures of Tintin, The, 9.1, 9.2

  affectionless psychopathy, 6.1, 8.1

  affective

  functions, 5.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5

  impairments, 8.1, 10.1

  neuroscience

  affirmative defense

  Africa, Africans, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1

  African-Americans, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3

  aggression

  as adaptive, 1.1, 1.2

  affective

  in animals, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1

  in anthropological studies

  defensive, itr.1, 1.1, 2.1, 5.1, 9.1

  evolutionary theory of

  gender differences in

  heritability of, 2.1, 11.1

  impulsive, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 6.1, 10.1

  low heart rate and

  male sexual jealousy and, 1.1, 6.1

  MAOA gene and

  medication for

  neurotransmitter levels and

  prevailing theories on

  primitive evolutionary logic of

  proactive, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

  reactive, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2

  regulated, cold-blooded, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1

  relational, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1

  ring-finger length and

  sugar consumption and

  and XYY chromosome

  alcoholism, 2.1, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 10.1, 11.1

  alcohol production, 8.1, 8.2

  alcohol use, 2.1, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2

  during pregnancy, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 9.1

  Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 9.1, 11.1

  Allen, Kathy

  altruism, reciprocal

  Alzheimer’s disease, 3.1, 10.1

  Amen, Daniel

  American Association for the Advancement of Science, 10.1, 11.1

  American Civil Liberties Union

  American Psychiatric Association

  American Sociological Review

  Amin, Idi

  Amish schoolgirls massacre

  Amsterdam, famine in

  Amurao, Corazon

  amygdala, itr.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1

  maldevelopment of, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1, 10.1

  anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (aMRI)

  androgens

  anger, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

  of crime victims

  management of, 9.1, 11.1

  in media

  angular gyrus, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 8.1

  angular stomatitis, 7.1, 7.2

  Animal Farm (Orwell)

  animals

  aggressive behavior in, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1

  exercise in

  experiments on, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 7.2

  parental instincts in, 8.1, 11.1

  anomalies, physical, as markers for aggression, 6.1, 8.1

  anterior cingulate, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 10.1

  anthropological studies

  anticipatory fear, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 8.1

  anticonvulsant medication

  antidepressant medication

  antipsychotic medications

  antisocial behavior, itr.1, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1

  birth complications and

  broken (structurally different) brains in, 5.1, 5.2

  “cheating” strategy in, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 4.1

  deterrents to

  Dunedin longitudinal study on

  environment in, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2

  fetal alcohol syndrome and

  fish consumption and

  heritability of

  low heart rate and

  malnutrition and, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5

  moral brain and

  nonaggressive, 2.1, 5.1

  smoke exposure and

  sugar consumption and

  “antisocialization process”

  antisocial personality disorder, 2.1, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 7.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2

  anxiety disorders, 4.1, 8.1, 11.1

  apocalyptic visions

  assault, itr.1, 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 11.1

  Archer, John

  Aristotle

  Artful Dodger (char.)

  Aryans

  atavistic stigmata, 1.1, 6.1

  Ativan

  ATP molecule

  atropine

  attachment theory

  attention, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 6.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4

  attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 2.1, 5.1, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1, 11.1

  Australia, 2.1, 7.1, 9.1

  Austria

  autobiographic lies

  autonomic nervous system, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1

  Ayoreo Indians, 1.1, 1.2

  baboons, 4.1, 6.1

  “bad birth and bad mother” hypothesis

  Baker, George

  Baker, Laura, 2.1, 2.2

  Baker, Michael

  bar fights, 1.1, 6.1

  Barnum’s American Museum

  basolateral nucleus

  BBC documentary and debate

  Beard, Joseph

  Beatles, 7.1, 9.1

  Bechara, Antoine, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1

  Beck, Tim, 9.1, 11.1

  Beier, Klaus M.

  Beijing Normal University

  Bentham, Jeremy

  benzodiazepine (Temazepam)

  Better Angels of Our Nature, The (Pinker)

  Bigler, Erin

  bioavailability

  biofeedback, 9.1, 9.2

  in hypothetical future scenarios

  biological criminology

  “biological high risk” design

  biological intervention

  brain change through, 9.1, 9.2

  castration as, 9.1, 9.2

  in children, 9.1, 9.2

  by medication, 9.1, 9.2

  nutrition in, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4

  in pregnancy

  biology

  as basis of crime and violence, prf.1, itr.1

  social factors and, prf.1, itr.1

  biosocial model, prf.1, itr.1, 1.1, 2.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3

  criticism of

  “interaction” perspective in

  “social-push” perspective in

  two themes of, 8.1, 8.2

  violence exponentially increased through

  violence moderated through

  bipolar disorder

  birds, abandonment of offspring by

  birth complications

  and maternal rejection, 8.1, 8.2, 11.1

  as precursor to violence, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2

  and prenatal smoking

  Blair, James

  Blair, Tony

 
blame, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1

  blood sugar, low, 7.1, 9.1

  “blue babies”

  blue-collar crime, 5.1, 5.2

  Bodrum, Turkey

  Boer War

  Bolivians

  bomb-disposal experts, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4

  bonding, disruption of, see maternal rejection

  borderline personality disorder, 7.1, 9.1

  “Born to Be Criminal?” (Sterzer)

  Botswana

  Bouchard, Tom

  Bowlby, John, 6.1, 8.1

  boxers, boxing, 1.1, 5.1

  boys

  antisocial, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1

  inappropriate sexual behavior in

  as warriors

  XYY chromosome in

  brain

  affective processing in, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4

  biological intervention and changes in, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3

  birth complications and

  as broken (structurally different) in violent individuals, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 10.1

  chemistry

  cognitive processing in, 3.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.1

  complexity of

  crime as based in, prf.1, 1.1

  early health influences on, 5.1, 6.1

  fetal maldevelopment of, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

  fish consumption and

  as functionally different in violent individuals, 3.1, 4.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 10.1, 10.2, 11.1

  gender differences in

  genes, violence and, 8.1, 8.2

  in hypothetical future scenarios

  impairment to, 8.1, 8.2, 10.1, 10.2; see also head injury

  in issues of legal responsibility

  lead toxicity in

  Lombroso’s autopsy of

  in lying, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2

  in moral dilemma, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

  motor processing in, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3

  neuroanatomy of, 3.1, 8.1, 8.2

  normal, 5.1

  plasticity of

  premature aging of

  in psychopaths, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1

  and responsibility

  of schizophrenics

  of serial killers

  size and weight of, 5.1, 5.2

  social environment and

  software vs. hardware failure in, 5.1, 5.2

  in spousal abuse

  tumor, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3

  and violence, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1

  violence and malfunction of, 3.1, 5.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1

  volume reduction in areas of, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2

  in white-collar criminals

  brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene

  brain hemispheres, 1.1, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1

 

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