by Adrian Raine
36. Department of Justice (2012). Assistant Attorney General Laurie Robinson announces departure from office of justice programs. Office of Public Affairs. Tuesday, January 3. http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2012/January/12-ag-005.html.
37. Mitchell, O. (2005). A meta-analysis of race and sentencing research: Explaining the inconsistencies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 21, 439–66.
38. Office of Justice Programs (2012). Homicide trends in the U.S.: Trends by race. Bureau of Justice Statistics. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/homicide/race.cfm.
39. Cohen, A. (2011). Licensing parents. Bleeding Heart Libertarians. December 27. http://bleedingheartlibertarians.com/2011/12/licensing-parents-2/.
40. State of California Department of Justice (2009). Megan’s Law homepage. http://www.meganslaw.ca.gov/.
41. A conker is the seed from the horse-chestnut tree, about 1.5 inches in diameter. This traditional British game is played by putting a hole through the conker, threading it onto a piece of string, and swinging it to break the opponent’s conker, held vertically and stationary on a string. Health and safety concerns that have led to it being banned at school include the shards of the conker flying off into a child’s eye, and nut allergies, although personally I never had any problem myself playing conkers at school.
42. Strickland, P. (2011). Sentences of imprisonment for public protection: Commons Library standard note. October 19. http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN06086.
43. Although judges were originally mandated to impose a life sentence if the offender met IPP criteria, the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act of 2008 allowed judges more discretion.
44. Taylor, R., Wasik, M. & Leng, R. (2004). The Criminal Justice Act 2003: Blackstone’s Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
45. Jacobson, J. & Hough, M. (2010). Unjust Deserts: Imprisonment for Public Protection. London: Prison Reform Trust.
46. Ibid., p. 8.
47. Duggan, C. (2011). Dangerous and severe personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 198, 431–33.
48. Buchanan, A. & Grounds, A. (2011). Forensic psychiatry and public protection. British Journal of Psychiatry 198, 420–23.
49. Ibid.
50. Verkaik, R. (2004). Blair has not been tough on the causes of crime, says Woolf. The Independent (London), April 23.
51. Mackintosh, N., Baddeley, A., Brownsworth, R., et al. (2011). Brain Waves Module 4: Neuroscience and the Law. London: The Royal Society.
52. Profiling school shooters (2000). Frontline: The Killer at Thurston High. web article. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/profile/.
53. Kellerman, J. (1999). Savage Spawn: Reflections on Violent Children. New York: Ballantine.
54. Developmental and social-emotional screening of young children (0-6 years of age) in Minnesota. http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/fh/mch/devscrn/.
55. Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B. & Lozano, R. (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
56. Centers for Disease Control (2008). The Public Health Approach to Violence Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/overview/public health approach.html.
57. Social Finance (2012). About Us. http://www.socialfinanceus.org/about.
58. Social Finance (2012). History. http://www.socialfinanceus.org/work/history.
59. Commonwealth of Massachusetts (2012). Massachusetts First State in the Nation to Pursue “Pay For Success” Social Innovation Contracts. Press release, January 18. http://www.mass.gov/anf/press-releases/ma-first-to-pursue-pay-for-success-contracts.html.
60. Belkin, L. (2009). Should parenting require a license? New York Times. January 8. http://parenting.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/08/should-parenting-require-a-license/.
61. Tittle, P. (2004). Should Parents Be Licensed? Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books.
62. Leading articles (2012). Parental guidance suggested. The Times (London), p. 2, May 19.
63. Farah, M. J. (2012). Neuroethics: The ethical, legal, and societal impact of neuroscience. Annual Review of Psychology 63, 571–91.
64. Sterzer, P. (2010). Born to be criminal?: What to make of early biological risk factors for criminal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 1, ajp.psychiatryonline.org.
65. Kellerman, Savage Spawn, pp. 109-11.
66. Farrington, D. P. & Welsh, B. C. (2007). Saving Children from a Life of Crime: Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
67. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2006). Child Maltreatment. Washington, D.C.
68. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
69. LaFollette, H. (2010). Licensing parents revisited. Journal of Applied Philosophy 27, 327–43.
70. Ibid.
71. Couple who made boy, 11, live in a coal bunker jailed. (2012). The Independent (London), Courts section, May 29.
72. Shami Chakrabarti was previously a barrister working for the Home Office, and later the director of Liberty, a civil-liberties pressure group in England. She is currently the chancellor of Oxford Brookes University in England. She is widely recognized as one of the most influential and effective public-affairs lobbyists in the U.K.
73. The “If” Debate: A Newsnight Special (2004). BBC2. December 22. Prog ID 50/and/PS34L/77.
74. In considering whether to kill Adolph Hitler you could also consider Mao, Stalin, Pol Pot, or a host of other leaders who have been responsible for enormous loss of life in many countries throughout the world. Pol Pot is thought to have killed about 20 percent of the Cambodian population in the later 1970s. Stalin executed nearly a million Russians just before World War II.
75. Baynes, N. H. (1942). The Speeches of Adolf Hitler. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
76. Almost weekly vitriolic columns were written by Piet Grijs against Buikhuisen’s biological perspective in the influential and highly valued Vrij Nederland, a socialist critical weekly magazine.
77. Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 984–88.
78. Mann, C. (1994). War of words continues in violence research. Science 263, 1375.
79. Ibid.
80. Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization—a biosocial interaction. Personality & Individual Differences 2, 273–83.
81. The reconciliation of both the public and officials in the Netherlands with Wouter Buikhuisen is striking. In recognition of the earlier unfair ostracization of Buikhuisen for his biological perspective, a symposium was held to “rehabilitate” him on April 16, 2010, organized by criminology students with the support of the dean of the law school of Leiden University. On April 17, 2009, he gave a lecture on the amygdala to a fully packed college hall at Leiden University, and in November 2009 Leiden University formally reconciled with him. Full details of what is known in the Netherlands as the “Buikhuisen Affair” may be found in Keijning, L. (2006). Buikhuisen had wel wat uit te leggen. De affaire-Buikhuisen en de ontwikkeling van biosociaal onderzoek naar criminaliteit (Buikhuisen did have something to explain. The Buikhuisen affair and the development of biosocial research of criminality). Master’s thesis for Science and Technology Studies, Amsterdam University, 2006.
82. Mann, War of words continues.
83. Quotation from Winston Churchill in Bottomly, P., et al. (2011). Outdated approach to votes for prisoners. The Guardian. Letters, January 11.
84. Pinker, S. (2011). The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. New York: Viking.
85. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime.
86. Gutmann, A. & Thompson, D. (2012). The Spirit of Compromise: Why Governing Demands It and Campaigning Undermines It. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
87. Carlyle, T. (1855). Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches, p. 4
48. New York: Harper.
Index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures.
Abel
abortion, attempted
acne, as XYY marker
Adam and Eve
“additive” affect, 8.1, 8.2
adolescents
aggression in, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 8.1, 9.1, 11.1
antisocial behavior in, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 8.1, 8.2
heart rate in
in hypothetical future scenarios
medication for aggression in
as mothers
murder of
as psychopaths
relational aggression in
rule-breaking by
schizophrenia in
sex offenses against
violence against
violence by, 1.1, 4.1, 6.1, 11.1
adoption, adoptees
antisocial behavior in, 2.1, 8.1, 8.2
screening for
twins in
adoption studies
criticism of
on fetal alcohol syndrome
on heritability, 2.1, 2.2
adrenaline
Adventures of Tintin, The, 9.1, 9.2
affectionless psychopathy, 6.1, 8.1
affective
functions, 5.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5
impairments, 8.1, 10.1
neuroscience
affirmative defense
Africa, Africans, 1.1, 1.2, 4.1
African-Americans, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
aggression
as adaptive, 1.1, 1.2
affective
in animals, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1
in anthropological studies
defensive, itr.1, 1.1, 2.1, 5.1, 9.1
evolutionary theory of
gender differences in
heritability of, 2.1, 11.1
impulsive, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 6.1, 10.1
low heart rate and
male sexual jealousy and, 1.1, 6.1
MAOA gene and
medication for
neurotransmitter levels and
prevailing theories on
primitive evolutionary logic of
proactive, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
reactive, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.2
regulated, cold-blooded, 2.1, 2.2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 4.1
relational, 1.1, 1.2, 6.1
ring-finger length and
sugar consumption and
and XYY chromosome
alcoholism, 2.1, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 10.1, 11.1
alcohol production, 8.1, 8.2
alcohol use, 2.1, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2
during pregnancy, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 6.1, 9.1
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 9.1, 11.1
Allen, Kathy
altruism, reciprocal
Alzheimer’s disease, 3.1, 10.1
Amen, Daniel
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 10.1, 11.1
American Civil Liberties Union
American Psychiatric Association
American Sociological Review
Amin, Idi
Amish schoolgirls massacre
Amsterdam, famine in
Amurao, Corazon
amygdala, itr.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.1, 9.2, 10.1
maldevelopment of, 5.1, 5.2, 7.1, 10.1
anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (aMRI)
androgens
anger, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
of crime victims
management of, 9.1, 11.1
in media
angular gyrus, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 8.1
angular stomatitis, 7.1, 7.2
Animal Farm (Orwell)
animals
aggressive behavior in, 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1
exercise in
experiments on, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 7.1, 7.2
parental instincts in, 8.1, 11.1
anomalies, physical, as markers for aggression, 6.1, 8.1
anterior cingulate, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 10.1
anthropological studies
anticipatory fear, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 8.1
anticonvulsant medication
antidepressant medication
antipsychotic medications
antisocial behavior, itr.1, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1
birth complications and
broken (structurally different) brains in, 5.1, 5.2
“cheating” strategy in, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 4.1
deterrents to
Dunedin longitudinal study on
environment in, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
fetal alcohol syndrome and
fish consumption and
heritability of
low heart rate and
malnutrition and, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5
moral brain and
nonaggressive, 2.1, 5.1
smoke exposure and
sugar consumption and
“antisocialization process”
antisocial personality disorder, 2.1, 4.1, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 7.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.2
anxiety disorders, 4.1, 8.1, 11.1
apocalyptic visions
assault, itr.1, 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1, 7.2, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 11.1
Archer, John
Aristotle
Artful Dodger (char.)
Aryans
atavistic stigmata, 1.1, 6.1
Ativan
ATP molecule
atropine
attachment theory
attention, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 6.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 2.1, 5.1, 7.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1, 11.1
Australia, 2.1, 7.1, 9.1
Austria
autobiographic lies
autonomic nervous system, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1
Ayoreo Indians, 1.1, 1.2
baboons, 4.1, 6.1
“bad birth and bad mother” hypothesis
Baker, George
Baker, Laura, 2.1, 2.2
Baker, Michael
bar fights, 1.1, 6.1
Barnum’s American Museum
basolateral nucleus
BBC documentary and debate
Beard, Joseph
Beatles, 7.1, 9.1
Bechara, Antoine, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 8.1
Beck, Tim, 9.1, 11.1
Beier, Klaus M.
Beijing Normal University
Bentham, Jeremy
benzodiazepine (Temazepam)
Better Angels of Our Nature, The (Pinker)
Bigler, Erin
bioavailability
biofeedback, 9.1, 9.2
in hypothetical future scenarios
biological criminology
“biological high risk” design
biological intervention
brain change through, 9.1, 9.2
castration as, 9.1, 9.2
in children, 9.1, 9.2
by medication, 9.1, 9.2
nutrition in, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
in pregnancy
biology
as basis of crime and violence, prf.1, itr.1
social factors and, prf.1, itr.1
biosocial model, prf.1, itr.1, 1.1, 2.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3
criticism of
“interaction” perspective in
“social-push” perspective in
two themes of, 8.1, 8.2
violence exponentially increased through
violence moderated through
bipolar disorder
birds, abandonment of offspring by
birth complications
and maternal rejection, 8.1, 8.2, 11.1
as precursor to violence, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 9.1, 10.1, 10.2
and prenatal smoking
Blair, James
Blair, Tony
blame, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1
blood sugar, low, 7.1, 9.1
“blue babies”
blue-collar crime, 5.1, 5.2
Bodrum, Turkey
Boer War
Bolivians
bomb-disposal experts, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
bonding, disruption of, see maternal rejection
borderline personality disorder, 7.1, 9.1
“Born to Be Criminal?” (Sterzer)
Botswana
Bouchard, Tom
Bowlby, John, 6.1, 8.1
boxers, boxing, 1.1, 5.1
boys
antisocial, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 6.1
inappropriate sexual behavior in
as warriors
XYY chromosome in
brain
affective processing in, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4
biological intervention and changes in, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3
birth complications and
as broken (structurally different) in violent individuals, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 10.1
chemistry
cognitive processing in, 3.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.1
complexity of
crime as based in, prf.1, 1.1
early health influences on, 5.1, 6.1
fetal maldevelopment of, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3
fish consumption and
as functionally different in violent individuals, 3.1, 4.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 10.1, 10.2, 11.1
gender differences in
genes, violence and, 8.1, 8.2
in hypothetical future scenarios
impairment to, 8.1, 8.2, 10.1, 10.2; see also head injury
in issues of legal responsibility
lead toxicity in
Lombroso’s autopsy of
in lying, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2
in moral dilemma, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
motor processing in, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
neuroanatomy of, 3.1, 8.1, 8.2
normal, 5.1
plasticity of
premature aging of
in psychopaths, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1
and responsibility
of schizophrenics
of serial killers
size and weight of, 5.1, 5.2
social environment and
software vs. hardware failure in, 5.1, 5.2
in spousal abuse
tumor, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3
and violence, 3.1, 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1
violence and malfunction of, 3.1, 5.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1
volume reduction in areas of, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2
in white-collar criminals
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene
brain hemispheres, 1.1, 3.1, 5.1, 5.2, 6.1