17. Brent W. Roberts and Daniel Mroczek, “Personality Trait Change in Adulthood,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 17 (2008): 31–35.
18. Stephen Soldz and George E. Vaillant, “The Big Five Personality Traits and the Life Course: A 45-Year Longitudinal Study,” Journal of Research in Personality 33 (1999): 208–232.
19. William G. Iacono and Matthew McGue, “Minnesota Twin Family Study,” Twin Research 5 (2002): 482–487; Thomas J. Bouchard, Jr., David T. Lykken, Matthew McGue, et al., “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religiousness: Genetic and Environmental Influences and Personality Correlates, Twin Research 2 (1999): 88–98.
20. Clark W. Heath, What People Are (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945).
21. Leo Tolstoy, Childhood, Boyhood and Youth (New York: Scribner’s, 1904), 109.
22. Michael Rutter, Maternal Deprivation Reassessed, 2nd ed. (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1981).
23. Earnest Hooton, Young Man, You Are Normal (New York: Putnam, 1945).
24. Vaillant, Natural History of Alcoholism Revisited.
25. Melita H. Oden, “The Fulfillment of Promise: 40-Year Follow-up of the Terman Gifted Group,” Genetic Psychology Monographs 77 (1968): 3–93; Howard S. Friedman and Leslie R. Martin, The Longevity Project (New York: Hudson Street Press, 2011).
26. Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor Glueck, Delinquents and Nondelinquents in Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968); William McCord and Joan McCord, Origins of Crime (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959).
5. MATURATION
(Epigraph) William James, “The Laws of Habit,” Popular Science Monthly 30 (1887): 433–451, quote p. 447.
1. Robert V. Kail and John C. Cavanaugh, Human Development, 6th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2010), 488.
2. Erik H. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (New York: Norton, 1968), 136.
3. Lester Luborsky, “Clinicians’ Judgments of Mental Health,” Archives of General Psychiatry 7 (1962): 407–417.
4. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C., 1994); George E. Vaillant, “The Natural History of Male Psychological Health, III: Empirical Dimensions of Mental Health,” Archives of General Psychiatry 32 (1975): 420–426.
5. George E. Vaillant and Eva Milofsky, “Natural History of Male Psychological Health, IX: Empirical Evidence for Erikson’s Model of the Lifecycle,” American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (1980): 1348–1359.
6. Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1963), 272.
7. George E. Vaillant, “Natural History of Male Psychological Health, V: The Relation of Choice of Ego Mechanisms of Defense to Adult Adjustment,” Archives of General Psychiatry 33 (1976): 535–545; George E. Vaillant, The Wisdom of the Ego (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
8. Vaillant and Milofsky, “Natural History of Male Psychological Health, IX: Empirical Evidence for Erikson’s Model of the Lifecycle.”
9. George E. Vaillant, Spiritual Evolution: A Scientific Defense of Faith (New York: Doubleday Broadway, 2008); Antonio Damasio, Looking for Spinoza (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003).
10. Paul I. Yakovlev and André R. Lecours, “The Myeogenetic Cycles of Regional Maturation of the Brain,” Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life, ed. Alexandre Minkowski (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1967); Francine M. Benes, Mary Turtle, Yusuf Khan, et al., “Myelinization of a Key Relay in the Hippocampal Formation Occurs in the Human Brain During Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood,” Archives of General Psychiatry 51 (1994): 477–484.
11. Monika Ardelt and George E. Vaillant, “What Affects the Growth and Loss of Wisdom Throughout the Life Course? Evidence from Three Case Studies,” Gerontologist 48 (2008): 353.
12. Carol Gilligan, personal communication, 1990.
13. Erikson, Childhood and Society.
14. Ravenna Helson, Constance Jones, and Virginia S. Y. Kwan, “Personality Change over 40 Years of Adulthood: Hierarchical Linear Modeling Analyses of Two Longitudinal Samples,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 752–766; Constance Jones and Harvey Peskin, “Psychological Health from the Teens to the 80s: Multiple Developmental Trajectories,” Journal of Adult Development 17 (2010): 20–32.
15. Jack Block, Lives through Time (Berkeley: Bancroft Books, 1971); Glen H. Elder, Jr., Children of the Great Depression (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974); Dan P. McAdams and Jennifer L. Pals, “A New Big Five,” American Psychologist, 61 (2006): 204–217; Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, Jr., “The Stability of Personality,” Current Directions in Psychological Sciences 3 (1994): 173–175; Robert W. White, Lives in Progress, 3rd ed. (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1972); Daniel J. Levinson, Charlotte M. Darrow, Edward B. Klein, et al., “The Psychosocial Development of Men in Early Adulthood and the Mid-Life Transition,” Life History Research in Psychopathology, vol. 3, ed. David F. Ricks, Alexander Thomas, and Merrill Roff (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1974), 243–258; George E. Vaillant and Charles C. McArthur, “The Natural History of Male Psychological Health, I: The Adult Life Cycle from 18–50,” Seminars in Psychiatry 4 (1972): 415–427.
16. Robert J. Havighurst, Developmental Tasks and Education (New York: David McKay, 1972).
17. Vaillant, The Wisdom of the Ego.
18. Vaillant and McArthur, “The Natural History of Male Psychological Health, I: The Adult Life Cycle from 18–50.”
19. Monika Ardelt and George E. Vaillant, “The Presence and Absence of Wisdom in Everyday Life: Evidence from Two Longitudinal Case Studies,” Gerontological Society of America Annual Meetings, Atlanta, GA, November 2009.
20. Eleanor H. Porter, Pollyanna (Boston: Page Co., 1914).
21. Martin E. P. Seligman, Flourish (New York: Free Press, 2011).
22. Laura Carstensen, Derek M. Isaacowitz, and Susan T. Charles, “Taking Time Seriously: A Theory of Socioemotional Selectivity,” American Psychologist, 54 (1999): 165–181; Susan T. Charles, Chandra A. Reynolds, and Margaret Gatz, “Age Related Differences and Changes in Positive and Negative Affect over 23 Years,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2001): 136–151.
23. Jane Loevinger, Ego Development (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1976); Francine M. Benes, Mary Turtle, Yusuf Khan, et al., “Myelinization of a Key Relay in the Hippocampal Formation Occurs in the Human Brain During Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood,” Archives of General Psychiatry 51(1994): 477–484.
24. Benes et al., “Myelinization of a Key Relay.”
25. Laura L. Carstensen, A Long Bright Future (New York: Crown, 2009); Laura L. Carstensen, Monisha Pasupathi, Ulrich Mayr, et al., “Emotion Experience in Everyday Life Across the Adult Life Span,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000):644–655; Charles, Reynolds, and Gatz, “Age-Related Differences.”
26. Laura L. Cartensen, “Social and Emotional Patterns in Adulthood: Support for Socioemotional Selectivity Theory,” Psychology and Aging 7 (1992): 331–338.
27. Vaillant and Milofsky, “Empirical Evidence for Erikson’s Model of the Lifecycle.”
28. George E. Vaillant, Janice Templeton, Monika Ardelt, et al., “Natural History of Male Mental Health: Health and Religious Involvement,” Social Science and Medicine 66 (2008): 221–231.
29. Paul B. Baltes and Jacqui Smith, “Toward a Psychology of Wisdom and Its On-togenesis,” Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins and Development, ed. Robert J. Sternberg (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990): 87–120.
30. Jane Loevinger, Ego Development (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1976).
31. Baltes and Smith, “Toward a Psychology of Wisdom.”
32. Monika Ardelt, “Empirical Assessment of a Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale,” Research on Aging 25 (2003): 275–324.
33. Aaron A. Lazare, Gerald L Klerman, and David J. Armor, “Oral Obsessive and Hysterical Patterns,” Archives of General Psychiatry 14 (1966): 624–630; Derek M. Isaa
cowitz, George E. Vaillant, and Martin E. P. Seligman, “Strengths and Satisfaction across the Adult Lifespan,” International Journal of Aging and Human Development 57 (2003): 181–201.
34. Monika Ardelt, “Empirical Assessment of a Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale.”
6. MARRIAGE
1. G. E. Vaillant, Adaptation to Life (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977), 320.
2. Robert J. Waldinger and Marc S. Schulz, “Facing the Music or Burying Our Heads in the Sand? Adaptive Emotion Regulation in Midlife and Latelife,” Research in Human Development 7 (2010): 292–306.
3. George E. Vaillant and Caroline O. Vaillant, “Is the U-Curve of Marital Satisfaction an Illusion?” Journal of Marriage and the Family 55 (1993): 230–239.
4. Vaillant, Adaptation to Life.
5. Lewis M. Terman, Psychological Factors in Marital Happiness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938); John M. Gottman, What Predicts Divorce? (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994).
6. George E. Vaillant, The Natural History of Alcoholism Revisited (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
7. Mary W. Hicks and Marilyn Platt, “Marital Happiness and Stability: A Review of Research in the 60s,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 32 (1970): 553–574; Sylvia Weishaus and Dorothy Field, “A Half-Century of Marriage: Continuity or Change?” Journal of Marriage and the Family 50 (1988): 763–774.
8. Henri Troyat, Tolstoy (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967).
9. Mary Ainsworth, Mary C. Blehar, Everett Waters, et al., Patterns of Attachment (Hillsdale N.J.: Erlbaum, 1978).
10. Emmy E. Werner and Ruth S. Smith, Vulnerable but Invincible: A Longitudinal Study of Resilient Children and Youth (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982).
11. George E. Vaillant, Wisdom of the Ego (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
12. U.S. National Center of Health Statistics, “Divorces and Divorce Rates, U.S.,” Vital and Health Statistics, series 21 (1978), no. 29.
13. Alan Booth, David R. Johnson, Lynn K. White, et al., “Divorce and Marital Instability over the Life Course,” Journal of Family Issues 7 (1986): 421–442.
14. Laura L. Cartensen, “Social and Emotional Patterns in Adulthood: Support for Socioemotional Selectivity Theory,” Psychology and Aging 7 (1992): 331–338.
15. Jan Hoffman, “Embracing Divorce as an Apple-Pie Institution,” Orange County Life (April 29, 1989).
7. LIVING TO NINETY
(Epigraph) Michael Bury and Anthea Holme, Life after Ninety (London: Routledge, 1991), 43.
1. Ian J. Deary, Lawrence J. Whalley, and John M. Starr, A Lifetime of Intelligence: Follow-up Studies of the Scottish Mental Health Surveys of 1932 and 1947 (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2009); Hilary Lapsley, personal communication, 2011.
2. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Complete Poetical Works of Oliver Wendell Holmes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1908), 147.
3. James F. Fries, “Aging, Natural Death and the Compression of Morbidity,” New England Journal of Medicine 303 (1980): 130–135; Thomas T. Perls and Margery H. Silver, Living to 100 (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 130.
4. U.S.A. Today, March 17, 2011, 3A.
5. Keiko A. Taga, Howard S. Friedman, and Leslie R. Martin, “Early Personality Traits as Predictors of Mortality Risk Following Conjugal Bereavement,” Journal of Personality 77 (2009): 669–690.
6. Nathan W. Shock, Normal Human Aging (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1984).
7. James F. Fries and Lawrence M. Crapo, Vitality and Aging (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1981).
8. David A. Drachman, “Do We Have Brain to Spare?” Neurology 64 (2005): 2004–2005.
9. Dan G. Blazer, Dana C. Hughes, and Linda K. George, “The Epidemiology of Depression in an Elderly Community Population,” Gerontologist 27 (1987): 281–287; Paul B. Baltes and Karl U. Mayer, eds., The Berlin Aging Study (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
10. Laura L. Carstensen, “Social and Emotional Patterns in Adulthood: Support for Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory,” Psychology and Aging 7 (1992): 331–338.
11. John W. Rowe and Robert L. Kahn, Successful Aging (New York: Dell, 1999).
12. Jason Brandt, Miriam Spencer, and Marshall Folstein, “The Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status,” Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 1 (1988): 111–117; B. D. Carpenter, M. E. Straus, and A. M. Ball, “Telephone Assessment of Memory in the Elderly,” Journal of Clinical Geropsychology 1 (1995): 107–117.
13. Rowe and Kahn, Successful Aging; Bury and Holme, Life after Ninety.
14. David Snowdon, Aging with Grace: The Nun Study and the Science of Old Age (London: Harper Collins, 2001).
15. Sigmund Freud, “Dostoevsky and Parricide (1928),” Standard Edition, 21:177–196 (London: Hogarth Press, 1961), 177.
16. E. M. Forster: Howards End (New York: Edward Arnold, 1973), 183–184.
17. Francine Benes, “Human Brain Growth Spans Decades.” American Journal of Psychiatry 155 (1998): 1489.
18. Baltes and Mayer, eds., The Berlin Aging Study.
19. Rowe and Kahn, Successful Aging.
20. Warner Schaie, “The Course of Adult Intellectual Development,” American Psychologist 49 (1994): 304–313.
21. Bury and Holme, Life after Ninety, 59.
22. George E. Vaillant, “Natural History of Male Psychological Health: Effects of Mental Health on Physical Health,” New England Journal of Medicine 301 (1979): 1249–1254.
23. Howard S. Friedman and Leslie R. Martin, The Longevity Project (New York: Hudson Street Press, 2011).
24. G. E. Vaillant, Aging Well (New York: Little, Brown, 2002).
25. Ibid.
26. Paola Sebastiani, Nadia Solovieff, Andrew T. DeWan, et al., “Genetic Signatures of Exceptional Longevity in Humans,” Science Press, www.sciencemag.org, July 1, 2010.
27. Brandt, Spencer, and Folstein, “Telephone Interview.”
28. Vaillant, Aging Well.
29. Ibid.
30. Rowe and Kahn, Successful Aging, 28; Birgit Ljungquist, Stig Berg, Jan Lanke, et al., “The Effect of Genetic Factors for Longevity: A Comparison of Identical and Fraternal Twins in the Swedish Twin Registry,” Journal of Gerontology 53A (1998): M441–M446.
31. Hans Selye, The Stress of Life (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956); Franz Alexander, Thomas M. French, and George Pollock, eds., Psychosomatic Specificity: Experimental Study and Results, vol. 1 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1968); Helen F. Dunbar, Psychosomatic Diagnosis (New York: Hoefer, 1943).
32. Edwin F. Gildea, “Special Features of Personality Which Are Common to Certain Psychosomatic Disorders,” Psychosomatic Medicine 11 (1949): 273–281.
33. Felix Deutsch, The Mysterious Leap from the Mind to the Body (Madison, CT: International Universities Press, 1973).
34. George E. Vaillant, “Why Men Seek Psychotherapy, I: Results of a Survey of College Graduates,” American Journal of Psychiatry 129 (1972): 645–651.
35. George E. Vaillant, “Natural History of Male Psychological Health, IV: What Kinds of Men Do Not Get Psychosomatic Illness,” Psychosomatic Medicine 40 (1978): 420–431.
36. George E. Vaillant, “Natural History of Male Psychological Health, II: Some Antecedents of Healthy Adult Adjustment,” Archives of General Psychiatry 31 (1974): 15–22.
37. Harlan M. Krumholz, Teresa E. Seeman, Susan S. Merrill, et al., “Lack of Association Between Cholesterol and Coronary Heart Disease Mortality and Morbidity and All-Cause Mortality in Persons Older than 70 Years,” Journal of the American Medical Association 272 (1994): 1335.
38. Clark W. Heath, What People Are (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1945).
39. Joseph R. DiFranza and Mary P. Guerrera, “Alcoholism and Smoking,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 51 (1990): 130–135; George E. Vaillant, Paula P. Schnurr, John A. Baron, et al., “A Prospective Study of the Effects of Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Abuse on Mortality,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 6 (1991): 299–304.
40. Paula P. Schnurr, Caroline O. Vaillant, and George E. Vaillant, “Predicting Exercise in Late Midlife from Young Adult Personality Characteristics,” International Journal of Aging and Human Development 30 (1990): 153–161; H. Taylor, Harvard Sports Code, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).
41. James S. House, Karl R. Landis, and Debra Umberson: “Social Relationships and Health,” Science 248 (1998): 540–545.
42. George E. Vaillant, Stephanie E. Meyer, Kenneth J. Mukamal, et al., “Are Social Supports in Late Midlife a Cause or a Result of Successful Physical Aging?” Psychological Medicine 28 (1998): 1159–1168.
8. RESILIENCE AND UNCONSCIOUS COPING
(Epigraph) Sigmund Freud, “Analysis Terminable and Interminable (1937),” Standard Edition, vol. 23, ed. J. Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1964), 237.
1. Claude Bernard, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865) (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 188.
2. Adolf Meyer, The Collected Papers of Adolf Meyer, vol. 4: Mental Hygiene (1908), ed. Eunice E. Winters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1950–1952).
3. Sigmund Freud, “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defense (1894),” in Standard Edition vol. 3, ed. J. Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1964), 45–61; Sigmund Freud, “Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety (1926),” in Standard Edition, vol. 20, ed. J. Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1964), 87–157.
4. George E. Vaillant, “Theoretical Hierarchy of Adaptive Ego Mechanisms,” Archives of General Psychiatry 24 (1971): 107–118.
5. George E. Vaillant, Adaptation to Life (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977); George E. Vaillant, The Wisdom of the Ego (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); George E. Vaillant, Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing, 1994).
6. Phebe Cramer, The Development of Defense Mechanisms (New York: Springer Verlag, 1991); Andrew E. Skodol and John C. Perry, “Should an Axis for Defense Mechanisms Be Included in DSM-IV?” Comprehensive Psychiatry 34 (1993): 108–119.
7. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing, 1992), 751–753.
Triumphs of Experience: The Men of the Harvard Grant Study Page 40