The Curse of the Pharaohs' Tombs

by Harrison Paul

  Mentu – God of war.

  Mentuhotep, Montuhotep – Four pharaohs of the 11th dynasty.

  Meretseger – Meretseger was a cobra Goddess who was the protector and guardian of the Valley of the Kings. She lived on the mountains that dominate the Valley.

  Mereruka – Vizier under Teti (6th dynasty), successor of Kagemni.

  Meryre, Pepi I, Pepy I – Old Kingdom pharaoh, 6th dynasty.

  Meryt-Amen – Daughter of Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti.

  Meskhenet – The goddess of childbirth, personification of the birthing stone, two bricks placed under the feet of the woman giving birth in a crouching position.

  Middle Egypt – Geographical term that is applied to the area south of Luxor, especially sites around Beni Hasan and Tell el Armana.

  Min – God of fertility and harvest.

  Mortuary cult – The provision of regular funerary offerings for the eternal wellbeing of the deceased.

  Mortuary priest – Person appointed to bring funerary offerings daily to tomb; known as the ‘servant of the ka’.

  Mortuary temple – Where the mortuary cult of a King was carried out.

  Monthu – Monthu was the falcon-headed god of war.

  Mummy – A preserved corpse, this can be through natural or artificial means. The latter involves removing all sources of moisture from the body and thoroughly drying the body.

  Mut – Mut was the great mother goddess of Egypt: 1) Mother goddess, often equated with Isis; 2) Deceased with often malicious intentions. Venerated as the great divine mother, Mut was generally portrayed as a woman wearing a white and red crown, but she has also been known to be portrayed with the head or body of a vulture and as a cow because in the later period, she merged with Hathor.

  Naos – The sanctuary with the divine statues.

  Narmer – King, thought by many to have united Upper and Lower Egypt.

  Natron – Carbonate salt mixture used in mummifying. Found in the western delta. It could also be used as a cleaning agent for washing clothes, bodies or cleaning teeth.

  Naunet – Nun was the waters of chaos.

  Nebamen, Nebamon, Nebamun – Chief of police in western Thebes under Thutmose IV and Amenhoteop III.

  Nebwawi – High Priest of Osiris under Thutmose III.

  Necho, Neco, Necos, Nekhau – Two pharaohs of the Late Dynastic Period, 26th dynasty.

  Necropolis – City of the dead, cemetery.

  Nefer – Amulet made of gold, good luck charm.

  Neferkare, Pepi II, Pepy II – Old Kingdom pharaoh, 6th dynasty.

  Nefertari, Nefertari-Mery-Mut – The main wife of Ramses II.

  Nefertiti, Nefertete, Nofretete – The wife of Akhenaten.

  Nefertum – Nefertum was an ancient sun God, who was considered to be an aspect of Atum.

  Neferty – Prophet.

  Neith – Neith was an ancient Goddess of war and weaving

  Nekhbet – Goddess of Upper Egypt represented in the form of a vulture Nekhebet, also known as Nekhbet, is commonly pictured as a vulture holding an ankh. She is sometimes depicted with her wings spread protectively over the pharaoh. Nekhebet had a protective nature, being the protector goddess of mothers and children.

  Nephthys, Nepthys, Nebt-Het – The wife of Seth. Goddess, protective goddess of the dead. She was the sister of Osiris, Isis and Set, and the wife of Set. Nephthys is associated with her sister Isis and helping her with many things. She helped Isis gather the various parts of Osiris’ body after Set had dismembered him. She also assisted Isis in delivering babies. She is often seen together with Osiris and Isis, ruling the underworld. Nephthys was depicted as a woman with a basket and a house on top of her head.

  Nepra – A spirit of the corn.

  Nitocris, Nitokris – Daughter of Psammetic I, 26th dynasty, Wife of the God Amen.

  NK – New Kingdom.

  Nomarch – Ruler of a Nom.

  Nub – Gold.

  Nun – Primordial god of water and fertility, often depicted as a green or blue man.

  Nut – Goddess of the sky. Nut was the daughter of Shu, the Egyptian god of air, and Tefnut, goddess of water. She was also the sister and wife of Geb, god of the earth. She was commonly depicted as a naked woman arching over the earth, with her hands and feet touching the ground. Her body is usually sky-colored and filled with stars. She is also sometimes depicted as a cow. Some stories tell of Nut swallowing the sun in the evening, and giving birth to it in the morning. Nut is well known for being the mother of some of the most important Egyptian Gods: Osiris, Isis, Set and http://www.nekhebet.com/r_gods 2.html - nephthys Nephthys. The story of Nut mentions the sun god Ra forbidding her to bear any children for fear of them taking his throne. So Nut sought the help of the wise god Thoth and ultimately gave birth to her four children.

  Ogdoad – The eight primeval gods of creation: Nun and Naunet, Kuk and Kauket, Huh and Hauhet, Amen and Amaunet.

  OK – Old Kingdom.

  On, Heliopolis – Main temple of the sun god Re.

  Opening of the Mouth – The ceremony performed for a deceased person.

  Osiris, Asr, Ausar – God of Duat, consort of Isis. Osiris was the god of the dead and vegetation. He is usually referred to as god of the afterlife. Osiris is one of the most important Egyptian gods, having a cult following that grew beyond Egypt’s borders. Modern-day Egypt still celebrates festivals dedicated to him. Osiris is usually depicted as a mummy wearing the Atef crown with a crook and flail in his hands. Osiris became the king of the dead and the judge of the underworld. Egyptians viewed him as being triumphant over death; every pharaoh would be Osiris after death, while he was the embodiment of Horus when alive. Osiris was often painted with green skin, symbolizing new growth and renewal.

  Pabi – Ruler of Lachish, contemporary of Akhenaten.

  Pakhet – Pakhet was the Egyptian goddess of war.

  Paser – 1) Viceroy under Ay and Horemheb; 2) Mayor and vizier under Sethi I and Ramses II.

  Pepi – Two Old Kingdom pharaohs, 6th dynasty: 1) Pepi I, Pepy I, Meryre, 2) Pepi II, Pepy II, Neferkare, Son of Pepi.

  Per nefer – House of beauty or good house. Place where part of the purification and mummification procedures or rituals took place.

  Pesesh-kaf – Ceremonial instrument used in the Opening of the Mouth ceremony.

  Pharaoh – Great house, or the house of the king. Also a king of Egypt.

  Phoenix – Mythological bird.

  Piankhi, Piye – Pharaoh of the Late Dynastic Period, 25th dynasty.

  Pre-dynastic – Prehistoric period, 5500 to 3050 BCE.

  Prehirwonnef – Son of Ramesses II and Queen Nefertari.

  Proto-dynastic – Period 3200 to 3050, also called Late Gerzean.

  Prophet – Servant of the god and head priest.

  Psammetichos, Psammetic, Psamtek, Psamtik – Three pharaohs, 26th dynasty.

  Pshent – The double crown of the united Egypt.

  Ptach, Ptah – The creator-god and the patron deity of crafts and craftsmanship. Ptah was usually depicted as a mummified figure with his hands protruding through the bandaging to hold a staff with the symbols of dominion and stability.

  Ptah – Creator god of Memphis. It was Ptah whom the sem priest emulated at the Opening of the Mouth, for Ptah was believed to have carried out a similar task on the gods at the time of their creation.

  Ptahhotep – Vizier under Djedkare (5th Dynasty).

  Pyramid – Monumental burial place for kings between the 3rd and 12th dynasty.

  Pyramid texts – Texts or spells carved inside the pyramids concerning the afterlife of the deceased during the fifth and sixth dynasty.

  Pyramidion – Capstone of a pyramid.

  Qa’a – Last pharaoh of the first dynasty.

  Qebehsenuef, Kebhsenuf – One of the four sons of Horus.

  Qenbet – Judicial court.

  Qetesh – – Qetesh was a goddess of ecstasy and sexual pleasure, originally from Syria.

  Rameses, Rames
is, Ramesses, Ramses, Ramsis – Eleven pharaohs reigning during the New Kingdom, 19th and 20th dynasty.

  Ramose – 1) Vizier under Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV; 2) Vizier under Ramses II.

  Re, Ra – Sun god, the most important Egyptian god. Ra represented the creative force of the sun. Many myths credit Ra to be the first of the gods, creating the world from a watery chaos. As the sun god, Ra is often depicted as a hawk-headed man with the solar disc on his head. He is also commonly pictured riding a boat. Ra will sail this boat into the underworld in the evening. Every night Ra has to overcome many challenges, the most difficult of which is the great serpent Apep. If he succeeds, he will be able to progress beyond the underworld and into the land of the living in the morning.

  Rekhmire – Mayor and vizier under Thutmose III and Amenhotep II.

  Reserve heads – Old Kingdom sculptures found in tombs at Giza, considered by many to represent true portraits of the dead.

  Resheph – Resheph was a god of war and thunder, originally from Syria.

  Rock-cut tomb – Method begun during the Middle Kingdom of excavating tombs from solid rock. The tombs in the Valley of the Kings are a good example.

  Rosetau, Rasetjau – Place in the afterlife, the underworld.

  Sabgu – The planet Mercury.

  Sah – The constellation of Orion, associated with Osiris.

  Sakkara, Saqqara – Burial ground near Memphis.

  Sarcophagus – (Greek sarx + phagos, flesh eating) stone coffin.

  Satis – Satis is the goddess of the Nile and fertility.

  Scarab – 1) Dung beetle, 2) Amulet in the form of a dung beetle.

  Sechmet, Sekhmet – The Goddess of love and protection. Sekhmet was a powerful and destructive force, and was often depicted as a woman with the head of a lioness. She is also associated with red, the colour of blood. During her reign as pharaoh, the people of Egypt became independent and therefore disloyal to her. So it was in retribution that Ra created Sekhmet to attack the people to teach them a lesson. Sekhmet was too successful in her task. Each day, the fields ran red with the blood of her victims. Feeling some remorse for creating this force of destruction, Ra tried to stop Sekhmet, but she continued killing. Ultimately, to stop the carnage, Ra disguised beer as blood and got Sekhmet drunk, so she was unable to continue with her task.

  Sed Festival, Heb Sed – Celebration of the 30th anniversary of a pharaoh’s rule, sometimes celebrated after a shorter time period.

  Seker – Seker was the Memphite god of the dead.

  Sekh tent – A form of temporary structure erected at the tomb where the final funerary rites take place.

  Selk – The scorpion-goddess.

  Sem priest – Wearing a leopard skin garment he is associated with the funerary ritual and the Opening of the Mouth ceremony.

  Senmut, Senemut – Minister and favourite of Queen Hatshepsut.

  Senusert, Senusret, Senwosret, Sesostris – Three Middle Kingdom pharaohs, 12th dynasty.

  Serdab – Old Kingdom underground funerary chapel or burial shaft that contains a statue of the deceased.

  Serket – Serket was the goddess of scorpion.

  Serpopards – Long-necked chimera.

  Seshat – Goddess, her name means ‘female scribe’. Seshat is an ancient Egyptian goddess of wisdom, knowledge, and writing from Lower Egypt.

  Set, Seth – The god of chaos, evil, storms, desert and darkness. Brother of Osiris, Isis and Nepthys, whose husband he was. The personification of evil. Set is most commonly portrayed as a man with a black coloured demonic head, resembling that of an aardvark. Originally, Set was the patron god of the pharaohs of Lower (Northern) Egypt, as Horus was the patron god of the pharaohs of Upper (Southern) Egypt. Some pharaohs incorporated Set’s name into their own. However, as the cult of Osiris grew larger and the story of Osiris’s murder grew more popular, Set was depicted as being more evil and chaotic. He would become associated with barren deserts and thunderstorms. After Set was defeated by Horus, he was banished from Egypt, and spent his time protecting Ra on his nightly voyage through the underworld.

  Setau – Viceroy of Kush under Ramses II.

  Setep – Ceremonial instrument used in the opening of the mouth ceremony.

  Shabti, Shawabti – Mummy-style statuette of the deceased that was placed in tombs to do manual labour.

  Shepseskaf – King (4th dynasty), son of Menkaure.

  Sheshonk, Sheshonq – Five pharaohs reigning during the 3rd Intermediate Period, 22th and 23th dynasty.

  Shezmu – Shezmu was the ancient Egyptian demonic god of slaughter, execution, blood and wine.

  Shu – The Egyptian god of air.

  Shuwardata – Ruler of Keilah, contemporary of Akhenaton.

  Snefru, Sneferu, Snofru – Old Kingdom Pharaoh, 4th dynasty.

  Solar boat, ship, barque – Boat used by the sun god to cross the heavens.

  Sobek – Sobek is the crocodile god or Lord of Faiyum Oasis from Faiyum.

  Sokar – The hawk-headed god of the dead. When fused with Ptah (Ptah-Sokar) he appears in the form of a misshapen dwarf, and is then looked upon as a god of resurrection.

  Sopdet/Soqdet – Soqdet was one of the important goddesses of the star Sirius.

  Sphinx – Statue with lion’s body and human or animal head.

  Stela, stele – Monumental stone slab with inscriptions or carvings. A memorial to a dead person (gravestone), a commemoration of a victory or a major event, or even a formal decree.

  Tadu-heba, Tadukhipa – Daughter of Tushratta, married to Amenhotep III.

  Tatenen – Tatenen, the god of Rising Earth, who identified with creation.

  Ta-urt – The hippopotamus goddess of birth.

  Tauret, Taweret, Tauwret – A fertility goddess.

  Tawaret – Tawaret was the Egyptian goddess who protected women during pregnancy and childbirth.

  Tefnut – Lioness-headed goddess of dew, rain and moisture. Twinsister of Shu. The two form the constellation Gemini.

  Tepu-yn – A spirit of the corn.

  Teti – 6th dynasty pharaoh.

  Thebes, No, Waset, Wese – The New Kingdom capital of Egypt and centre of the Amen cult.

  Thoth, Thot, Toth, Tehuti, Djehuti – The ultimate god of wisdom, his main temple was at Hermopolis, Hermes. The god of writing, knowledge, time, fantasy, speaking, inventions and moon. Thoth, the ibis-headed god of wisdom, was also associated with the moon. He is another of the more important Egyptian gods, featuring in almost all the myths.

  Thuthmose, Thutmose, Thutmosis, Tuthmosis – Four New Kingdom pharaohs, 18th dynasty.

  Tiye – Wife of Amenhotep III, daughter of Yuya and Tuyu, mother of Akhenaten.

  Triad – Three related gods – the Theban Triad, the Triad of Abydos, the Triad of Memphis.

  Tushratta – King of Mitanni, first half of the 14th century BCE.

  Tutanchamen, Tutanchamun, Tutankhamen, Tutankhaten, Tutankhamun – A New Kingdom pharaoh, 18th dynasty.

  Two lands – The united land of Upper and Lower Egypt, since the New Kingdom also referred to as Kemet.

  Tyet, Tet, The Blood of Isis, The Buckle of Isis – Symbol associated with Isis, amulet made of red semi-precious stone.

  Uazet – Goddess of Lower Egypt.

  Udjat, Wedjat – The eye of Horus, amulet.

  Unas, Weni, Wenis – Old Kingdom pharaoh, 5th dynasty.

  Upper Egypt – Southern Egypt, generally referring to locations between Luxor and Aswan, it occasionally includes middle Egypt.

  Upuaut, Wepwawet – Guardian god in the shape of a canine – jackalgod of Siut.

  Uraeus – Symbolic cobra, part of the headdress of pharaohs and Gods.

  Ushabti – Small wooden or glazed stone mummiform figures that were placed in tombs to undertake work on behalf of the deceased, and who may be called upon to perform tasks in the afterlife. Also referred to as Shawabti.

  Userkaf – First king of the fifth dynasty.

  Valley of the Kings – The p
haraonic burial site near Thebes during the New Kingdom, modern name for ancient ‘The Great and Majestic Necropolis of the Millions of Years of the Pharaoh in the West of Thebes, otherwise known as The Great Field’.

  Valley of the Queens – Burial site of queens near Thebes.

  Valley Temple – Place on the Nile edge where the king’s body was received for its final rites before being transported via the connecting causeway to the pyramids.

  Vizier – The king’s chief minister, ambassador, supreme civil and criminal judge.

  Wabet – Place where part of the purification or mummification rites took place.

  Wadjet, wedjat, uzat – The serpent goddess and the lunar eye of Horus. Often seen in amulet form to protect from the evil eye. Wadjet was worshiped as a cobra and was often included in royal insignia as a symbol of sovereignty over Egypt. She was the protector of the living Horus – the pharaoh. She was generally painted as being poised to strike at any potential enemy of the pharaoh. Often depicted as a woman with two snake heads.

  Wadjet Eye – The left eye of Horus, restored by the god Thoth. Symbolising the power of healing.

  Wassceptre – The symbol of well-being and happiness.

  Weni, Uni – 6th dynasty official, governor of Upper Egypt, who served under a number of different pharaohs.

  Wepwawet – Originally a war god whose name means ‘opener of the roads’, Wepwawet is portrayed as a canine creature that is claimed to be a jackal, a wolf, or an ordinary dog.

  Xerxes – A Persian king and pharaoh of Egypt (585–546).

  Yarsu – Often identified with Merneptah Siptah’s chancellor, Bay, in the 19th dynasty.

  Yuya – A high official under Thutmose IV, husband of Tuyu.

  Zaphnathpaaneah, Zaphnath-paaneah – According to the Bible, the Egyptian name of Joseph.

  Chapter 1

  Death in the Desert Sands

  It seems appropriate to begin our research into the curse of the pharaoh’s tombs by looking at the most legendary and infamous curse of them all, that of the boy pharaoh, Tutankhamun. Since 1922 tales of this curse have circulated in different formats across all aspects of the media. Each time the tale is retold it seems that further embellishment occurs, at times making it more unbelievable and preposterous. Most writers who reiterate tales of the curse simply recount the mysterious deaths of various people associated with the tomb opening, from across the globe. The basis of the curse has undoubtedly been lost in translation, and with the passage of time and the addition of unreliable glorified testimony it has been transformed from a believable and actual matter, to a more obscure and supernatural, and therefore unbelievable, subject. Modern-day writers and researchers tend to accept that a few of the deaths were little more than curious coincidences, and Egyptologists tend to steer well away from the topic of curses because of its less than acceptable academic standing. Thus as a serious subject it tends to be ignored, since it is regarded as so bizarre and belonging to the realm of the supernatural. Despite this, there is huge interest in the subject of Egyptian curses: one need only look at the number of films that have been produced (at the last count I listed twenty-four). In 2011 I carried out a survey among visitors to the British Museum, asking one simple question: ‘Do you believe in the Curse of the Pharaohs or the Curse of the Mummy and Egyptian Tombs?’ In total I asked 1,000 people visiting the museum, over the period of one week. I offered no prompting or guidance. The results were illuminating. Some 98 per cent of people stated that they believed in the curse, with just 2 per cent claiming that they didn’t believe in anything supernatural or inexplicable. No one asked for any further explanation of what the ‘Curse of the Pharaohs, or the Curse of the Mummy or Egyptian Tombs’ might mean. They had their own perception of the subject and clearly all imagined it to relate to supernatural sources, therefore its credibility instantly becomes dubious. The survey was deliberately multi-cultural, showing that belief in the curse isn’t solely a Western phenomenon. I recall a similar public attitude when I was carrying out research into the Loch Ness Monster: the instant it was mentioned in public, people withdrew from any discussion about why they visited the loch, and why they stood watching, looking out over its waters, occasionally for several hours, scanning its surface through binoculars. The subject is an unknown and inexplicable quantity, so it becomes a taboo subject because people believe that being associated with such beliefs creates an unwanted stigma, and that those who delve into such mysteries must be eccentric in their own rational beliefs.