The Curse of the Pharaohs' Tombs

by Harrison Paul

  In Europe, dog-headed men are known as Cynocephalus, the Greek word for a sacred Egyptian baboon that has the face of a dog. The name Kynokephalos means dog-headed, from ‘kuôn’, a dog, and ‘kephalos’, head. The Church has endorsed the existence of such beings: Saint Augustine made mention of the moral laws of the dogheaded men, and Saint Christopher is often depicted as having a dog’s head. When in this form he led a sinful life, but once baptised he transformed into an entirely human being, complete with human head. In the legend of King Arthur, he and his army fight and defeat a band of dog-headed soldiers in the mountains surrounding Edinburgh, Scotland.

  Over the years, sightings of dog-headed creatures have occurred in the most bizarre of climates and places. In the 1980s in Wisconsin, USA, several witnesses described creatures ranging from approximately five to seven feet tall, powerful and muscular, covered in fur, with large fangs and the head of a wolf or German Shepherd dog. This creature is often referred to as the ‘Beast of Bray Road’, and it has been described as a living, breathing being. In Michigan there have been over 500 recorded sightings of dog-headed men since the phenomenon was first mentioned on a local radio station in 1989. Often said to be a shape-shifter, it was also known to growl in a deep guttural tone. In 1992 a gravedigger found a stone with an intricate stone carving of a Pictish dog-headed man.

  Could these beings ever have really existed? Or are they myths or stories promulgated since ancient times that have changed over time? No skeletal remains of dog-headed humans have ever been found. Yet the widespread myths do make one wonder where all these stories came from.

  To return to the Egyptian dog-headed men, in Egyptian art the gods are often depicted in therianthropic form – human-like but with animal heads, such as Anubis, the cat-headed Bastet, or the ibisheaded Thoth. Accordingly, Anubis was shown with a jackal/dog-like head because the jackal/dog was associated with the necropolis. Such creatures were often seen roaming these districts in their natural form, thus the association with death and the underworld and so Anubis became a god of the dead. There are many other well-known gods with animal heads or bodies. The sphinxes all have human heads and lion bodies; Hathor is human in form but is depicted with cow’s ears and horns. Taweret was a hybrid of a hippopotamus, crocodile and lioness. A twelfth-century hymn from the time of Ramesses III describes a god as ‘divine power with hidden faces and mighty majesty, who has hidden his name and keeps his image secret, whose being was not known at the beginning of time.’ An Egyptian text, known as Papyrus Leiden, dating from the thirteenth century, contains a somewhat curious verse: ‘All gods are three: Amun, Re and Ptah, who have no equal. He hides his name as Amun, he appears as Re, his body is Ptah.’

  It is clear that the Egyptians did not believe they had a whole race of dog or animal-headed creatures living among them. Such beings in ancient Egypt were regarded as gods, and were often feared. When these gods went anywhere and had cause to leave their temples they were usually borne on shoulder-supported carry-chairs that took many forms but were essentially boats. The idea that the gods were looking down on people and had the ability to move through large crowds without interference made them all the more superior. Small effigies of the gods were often purchased and kept in people’s homes, where they were worshipped as much as the actual god itself. A number of texts advise us that the gods were often believed to descend from on high to dwell in images of themselves, which allowed their worshippers to interact with them. Carved on the walls of the temple of Horus at Edfu is this inscription:

  He comes down from heaven day by day

  in order to see his image upon his great throne.

  He descends upon his image

  and unites himself with his cult image.

  The gods also inhabited animal forms. The Apis bull at Memphis was treated as a living image of a god. It was pampered and groomed daily and consulted for oracles, and his mother was revered as an embodiment of Isis. When both creatures passed away they were treated with the same reverence as they were in life. They were mummified and were often spoken of as having become ‘an Osiris’. Throughout Egyptian history there is evidence of animal worship and the mummification of a diverse range of creatures, such as baboons, cats, dogs, crocodiles, fish and beetles.

  Herodotus records that in many Egyptian villages animals, birds or fish considered sacred to their local god were never sacrificed or eaten. Many Egyptian texts refer to the love their gods had for different animals. A hymn to Amun says:

  Thou art the only one, the creator of all that is. From whose eye men came forth. From whose mouth the gods originated. Who creates the herbs which the cattle live on… Who creates that which the fish in the river live on. And the birds in the air. Who gives breath to the chicken in the egg. Who maintains the young of the snake. Who creates the nourishment of the gnat. And also of the worms and the fleas. Who cares for the mice in their hole and keeps alive the insects in every tree.

  While there remained a healthy respect for the animals of the gods, it is most unlikely that ancient Egyptians were pure vegetarians, and even if this was the case, it was for ethical reasons. In most instances, particularly among the poor and impoverished, the only reason meat wasn’t eaten was because they couldn’t afford it. From this, we can conclude that when the Egyptians saw their gods in dreams or in visions, they expected them to be like that in reality, human, animal or combination of both. In another display of reverence to the gods and animals, priests would don masks of the gods during certain ceremonies and celebrations; in essence the dressing up and portrayal was like them becoming the god itself. The masks were almost always the animal version of the god. The example of Anubis again springs to mind: it was during the mummification process that Anubis appeared to help mummify the body. The transformation itself is meant to represent a hybrid being, and not a human wearing a mask. In tombs, the statues of animals would be present to ward off evil intent and to deter anyone, such as tomb robbers, from entering that sacred place. Some animal effigies were strategically placed as guardians of the tomb, and the belief that in the underworld these creatures would spring into life and attack intruders was common. Death played a very important part in the lives of ancient Egyptians, and that animals were involved in the all-important preparations to the body, making it ready for the afterlife, speaks volumes about how they trusted and believed in animals’ magic and wisdom. The Egyptians were no race of dogheaded men, but they did believe in the magical power of animals and how potent a force that could be in death.

  Chapter 7

  A Fate Worse Than Death

  We start this chapter with an authentic 12th Dynasty Egyptian ghost story, taken from a writing known as The Instruction of King Amenemhat I, which was recorded by the early Egyptian writer Khety. The writing survives in fragmented and damaged papyrus form, but it also appears on wooden tablets and painted onto shards of pottery, thereby providing a more detailed retelling. As a result of his brutal assassination by his own staff and bodyguards, the ghost of the first 12th Dynasty pharaoh King Amenemhat I is claimed to have returned from the dead to visit his son and successor (Senusret I, also referred to as Sesostris I) to warn him to be aware of traitors in his midst. ‘Listen to what I tell you so you may rule and govern well, and increase well-being!’ He warns his son and heir against ‘nobodies, whose plot remains hidden’, and instructs him to ‘trust no-one, neither a brother nor a friend; do not raise up for yourself intimate companions, for nothing is to be gained from them.’ The ghost then describes his own murder:

  It happened after supper, when night had come, as I rested peacefully for an hour, weary on my bed. As my heart turned to sleep the weapons of my protection were turned against me. I awoke fighting to find the bodyguards attacking. If only I had been quick enough and seized my weapons I would have made the cowards retreat at once! But none are might in the night and none can stand alone without a helper close beside. And all this happened while I was without you, before the courtiers knew I would hand e
verything over to you, before I had been able to sit with you and tell you of my plans. For I had not prepared for this, had not foreseen the treachery of servants! Senusret my son! I must leave you now and turn away. But you are always in my heart and my eyes will always see you! My child of a happy hour! I have established a beginning and wish to plan the future, giving you the contents of my heart. You are my likeness, and wear the white crown of your divine father. Everything is as it should be. Fight for all the wisdom the heart knows – for you will need it with you always.

  The human race existed in Egypt for thousands of years before any form of mummification was introduced into funereal rites during the 4th Dynasty. As a culture, the Egyptians have always held a deep fascination with death, indeed, it is known from relics found in their graveyards, that the early Nagada civilisation developed a cult of the dead. The tombs were made of trenches dug out in the desert sands and were generally oval or rectangular in shape. The corpse lay on its left side, knees drawn up under the chin, with the head facing the south and the face turned to the west. The remains were generally covered in goat skin or some form of reed or rush matting. The early Egyptians believed that everything possessed a ka (spirit), the khu (the soul) and the khat (the body itself). Like many early races, the Egyptians believed the shadow to be a genuine representation of the soul, and others believed in the association of the khaybet (the shadow) with the ka (the spirit) and sahu (the mummy). The physical heart was known as hati and was seen as central to intelligence, and its spirit was called ab. They believed that the human personality combined both body and spirit. Tomb scenes often show the birth of kings with the royal baby represented by two figures: the visible body and the invisible double. The ka began at birth and continued to live on after death. The ka, it was believed, could leave the human body during sleep or while the subject lay in a trance. It then wandered about and visited people and places, and its experiences remained in the memory.

  Early races such as the Negada buried their dead crouched in shallow graves in the belief that the ka remained beside the body until the flesh decayed, when it either ceased to be or haunted the cemetery. There was also a period of secondary internment, where the remains were reinterred and the skeletal bones placed in some order. Dismemberment was commonly practised and some graves indicate that decapitation had occurred after death. A sacred book refers to mutilation of dead bodies: ‘I shall not be destroyed – my head will not be cut off, nor my tongue taken out, nor will the hair of my head or my eyebrows be shaved off. My body will endure for all time.’As time passed, great importance was placed on the survival of the body and keeping it as intact as possible, and so the creation of more secure and stronger tombs became necessary. The walls of the grave began to change from having mud-coated linings, to being formed with branches and clay, and an early type of wooden lid covered the grave opening. All of this was to ensure the corpse suffered no crush damage through the collapsing of supporting walls originally made of earth and sand.

  These early graves developed into unbaked brick-lined tombs, in which various chambers were gradually introduced, forming rooms with clearly defined space that separated the corpse from different areas that housed offerings to the gods, and necessities for the afterlife such as furniture. The design became so complex that the use of clay bricks and branches as a lining was no longer seen as safe or secure, so flat stone slabs, offering greater strength and resistance to unwanted intruders, were introduced into the infrastructure. Tombs often contained secret chambers which were deliberately difficult to access and hidden from the sight line of any intruder. To make access more difficult, entrance passages or shafts leading to the tombs were blocked with stone slabs and mounds of rubble as the funerary priests retreated from the tomb. Blind passages and trap doors were created and hidden holes and deep wells built into the tomb to trap any. In some instances, carefully placed wires were rigged to decapitate intruders. If that wasn’t sufficient, the threat of poison being used in the coating of tomb, or in powders that were released into the air when stones were disturbed, might be sufficient to deter all but the most desperate tomb robber. Eventually, the tombs retreated into deeper underground rooms, the dead being carefully lowered into the tomb down a mined shaft that was later sealed with stones and sand. Above ground, the entire tomb was covered with a mastaba, a large rectangular embankment that was faced with limestone, inside which were two rooms. One of these is often referred to as the chapel, and was decorated with scenes of daily Egyptian life that was common to the deceased. Here, it was believed, the ka could enter and enjoy time as though it was still in the land of the living. The second room was known as the Serdab, and here a statue which resembled the dead person stood. This statue was important, because not only was it believed to communicate with the outside world, but it was also there to assist in the reincarnation of the ka. Over time, the burial custom evolved and the dead were laid on their backs, with the body fully extended, but no effort was made to preserve the body from decay, though offerings were placed in the tombs.

  Eventually, by about 2700BC, large stone tombs were introduced and the bodies of the dead were mummified. The belief was that the ka would return and cause the dead to rise again, or that the existence of the soul in the underworld depended upon there being an intact body on earth. Embalming became common practice throughout Egypt. The embalmers were licensed to practise and possessed some surgical skills, but the quality of their work depended upon the money being spent. In an attempt to extract as much money as possible from grieving relatives, mock mummies were shown to clients in order to determine an agreeable mummification process and a price. The cheapest means of embalming was to inject a chemical preparation before the body was covered with nitre. At the end of seventy days, the intestines were drawn out. Nothing else remained other than skin and bones, the flesh having been eaten away by the nitre. This was all the poor could afford.

  The most expensive embalming offered more care and attention to detail. The brain was extracted through the nostril after chemical infusion using an instrument made of palm and bamboo. This tool, measuring about ten inches in length, would be twisted inside the brain, wrapping brain matter around it, which was then pulled through the nasal cavity. A stone knife made an incision on one side of the body. The heart, liver, lungs and intestines were drawn out, and, after being cleansed, they were steeped in palm wine and sprinkled with rich perfume. Tiny sacks of natron were packed inside the body cavity to help dry it out. Once the body had dried, it was stuffed with powdered myrrh, cassia and resins, and sewn up. It was then covered with nitre for seventy days. Then it was washed all over and carefully wrapped in bandages that had been dipped in a strong gum. The intestines were placed in four canopic jars, the lids of which had the forms of four protecting gods, the four sons of Horus who represented north, south, east and west. Amset, with a human face, who guarded the stomach and large intestines; Duamutef, with a jackal’s head, who guarded lungs and heart; and Kebeh-senuf, the hawk-headed, who guarded the liver and gall bladder. These jars were placed in a chest and deposited in the tomb. The organs they contained were those that were believed to have caused various sins to be committed. It is interesting to note how a nineteenth-century examination of a mummy, by the French archaeologist Gaston Camille Charles Maspero, was recorded in comparison to more modern procedures. Then the examination concentrated on appearance. Maspero was a Director of Antiquities at the Egyptian museum in Cairo, and was one of the first individuals to recognise the issue of the illegal export of Egyptian antiquities by visitors, collectors, and paid agents of the major museums across the globe. Sensationally, Maspero had two Egyptian brothers (Abd al-Russul) arrested for stealing mummies and artifacts from tombs. The men were held and suffered physical torture before finally confessing, in July 1881, to stealing many royal mummies at Deir el-Bahari. As a result, the bodies of the pharaohs Seti I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose III and Ramesses II, in sarcophagi, were recovered from a place close to the village
and moved to Cairo. So it was that Maspero was able to investigate further the mummy of Ramesses II. On 1 June 1886 he recorded:

  The first layer of cloth was removed successively a strip of material, about eight inches wide, wound round the body, then a second shroud sewn together and kept in place by narrow strips attached at intervals, then two thicknesses of bandaging and a piece of fine linen stretched from the head to toe. A picture of the goddess Naut, about three foot high, was drawn on the latter in red and black as prescribed in the ritual. A fresh bandage was placed under this amulet, then a layer of pieces of linen folded in squares, and stained with the bituminous matter the embalmers had used. When this last wrapping was removed, Ramesses II was revealed. He was tall (nearly six foot after embalming), well made, and perfectly symmetrical. His head was elongated and small in proportion to his body, and the top of his skull was completely bald. His hair, which was thin over his temples, became thicker towards his neck and fell in smooth straight locks about two inches long; it had been white when he died but was stained light yellow by the perfumes. His eyebrows jutted out from a low narrow forehead. He had thick white lashes, small close-set eyes, a long thin nose, hooked like a Roman and slightly flattened at the end by the weight of the wrappings, hollow temples, prominent cheekbones, rounded protruding ears with a delicate fold to the edge and holes pierced in the lobes for earrings, a strong and powerful jaw, and a very high chin. His mouth was wide open and had thick fleshy lips; it was filled with blackish paste, and when some of this was removed with a chisel we could see a few well-worn teeth which were quite fragile in spite of their white well-kept appearance. His moustache and beard, which were sparse and carefully shaved during his life, had grown either during his last illness or after his death. The hairs were white like those on his head and eyebrows, but coarse and spiky and barely a tenth of an inch long. His skin was a sickly yellow, caked with black stuff. His mask gave us a good idea of his facial expression when he was alive: he had unintelligent features which bordered on the animal, but they were coupled with a proud and determined air of sovereign majesty. The rest of the body was equally well preserved, but had kept its original appearance so well because the flesh had shrunk, and his neck for instance was no thicker than his spine. His chest was ample, his shoulders held high his arms crossed on his chest, and he had long delicate hands reddened with henna, with very beautiful nails cut level with the flesh and cared for like a kept woman’s. There was a gaping wound on his left flank where the embalmers had taken out the viscera. His genital organs had been removed with the aid of a sharp instrument, and according to custom must have been buried separately in the hollow interior of a wooden figure of Osiris. His thighs and legs were emaciated, with long thin feet, rather flat, rubbed with henna, like his hands. His bones were weak and fragile and the muscles had atrophied through senile decay; indeed we know that Ramesses II reigned for a number of years with his father Seti I and then for seventy-two years alone, so he was nearly a hundred when he died.