Eye of the Beholder: Johannes Vermeer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and the Reinvention of Seeing
Page 50
Codde, Pieter, 226
Coelenbier, Jan, 276
Coesermans, Johannes, Interior of the Nieuwe Kerk, 155
Cohen, Barnett, 295
Collège Royale de France, 130
color, perception of, 215, 247–48
Colvius, Andreas, 316
Comenius, John, 5
compasses, artists’ use of, 83–84
Confession of Faith, 192
Confrerie Pictura, The Hague, 227
Constable, John, ix, 12
Cooge, Abraham de, 26, 271
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 4, 127
heliocentric theory of, 6, 120, 186, 253, 306, 316
Cordes, M. Henricus, 262–63
cornea, 77, 115, 201, 250, 293, 309, 313
corpuscles, 317
in blood, 248–49
Descartes’s theory of, 236, 249–50
Council of Trent, 38
Couwenbergh, Christiaen van, 74, 270
Cramer, Catharina Gillisdr., 270
Cramer, Gillis, 270
Cramer, Johannes Gillisz., 270, 282
“crystalline humor,” 77, 87–88, 140
“curator,” use of term, 194–95
currency, Dutch, value of, 16n–17n
Daghwerck (Huygens), 172–73
Dalenpatius, 280
dark-ground illumination, 295
Davidson, William, Leeuwenhoek’s apprenticeship with, 50, 51, 54–55, 100, 202–3
De bombyce (Malpighi), 241
Decker, Simon, 67
decorative arts, in Dutch Republic, 15
De corporis humani structura et usu (Platter), 87
Dee, John, 129, 164
Delfshaven, 20
Delft, 1–2, 11–12, 19, 27
anatomical theater in, 160, 238, 244
anti-Catholic prejudice in, 39
as artistic center, 70
art market in, 26
Bagijnhof in, 49
breweries in, 18–19, 21, 22–23, 46
Calvinism in, 54
canals of, 18, 19
Catholics in, 38–39, 49, 210, 232
charitable buildings in, 19
cleanliness of, 21
convents and abbeys converted to factories in, 21–22
glassmaking in, 183
Hoogheemraadschap (Water Board) in, 48
lens making in, 103
Market Square in, 1, 2, 12n, 19, 43, 164, 177, 309
medieval ramparts of, 19
munitions depot explosion in, 68–69
Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) in, 13, 18, 19–20, 39, 40, 41, 68, 144, 282
Oude Kerk (Old Church) in, 20, 39, 144, 245, 267, 302, 309
Oude Langendijck in, 37, 41, 46, 71, 176, 272, 275–76, 282
Paepenhoek in, 40, 41
peat-burning in, 18
population of, 164
pottery manufacturing in, 22–23, 183
Rotterdam Gate in, 144
St. Luke’s Guild in, see St. Luke’s Guild, Delft
Schie Canal in, 144
Schiedam Gate in, 144
Sint Jorispoort (St. George’s Gate) in, 19
1672 riots in, 209, 225
Stadhuis (Town Hall) in, 19–20, 113, 165, 166
tapestry weaving in, 21–22
topography of, 18
Voldersgracht in, 19, 20, 24, 28, 30, 165
Waag (weighing house) in, 20
Delftware, 22, 183
Della pittura (On Painting; Alberti), 79, 81, 84
Della Porta, Giambattista, 61, 90–91, 105–6, 129–30, 133, 185, 344, 357
Demisiani, John, 61
depth of field, 150
De radio astronomico et geometrico (Frisius), 127
Descartes, René, 6, 52, 53, 103–4, 108, 119–20, 168, 237, 324
corpuscular theory of, 236, 249–50
logic valued over observation by, 187–89, 191, 238
and mechanistic approach to anatomy, 236–37
on structure of human eye, 140–41
see also Cartesians, Cartesianism
development:
Malpighi’s microscopic investigations of, 241–42
see also generation
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Galileo), 333
diaphragm, in camera obscura, 128, 151
diatoms, 293
dictionaries, Dutch-English, 203
Diderot, Denis, 16
Diggs, Thomas, 129, 164
Dingnum Balthasars., 13, 23, 71
Dioptrice (Kepler), 87, 130
Dioptrics (Huygens), 108
Dioptrique, La (Descartes), 168
Discours de la méthode (Descartes), 236
“disks of confusion,” 151
dissections, 77, 160
Leeuwenhoek’s skill at, 313–14
of living animals, see vivisection
Malpighi and, 238, 239
microscopes and, 238, 239–40, 313–14
as public spectacle, 136, 238–39
Dissius, Jacob, 95
Donatello, 139
Donne, John, 169
Dordrecht, Synod of (1619), 192
Dou, Gerrit, 9, 35, 92, 94, 95–96, 97, 150, 176, 216, 336
Woman at a Window, 176
Douchy, Pieter Mauritz., 50
Doudijns, Wilhelm, 226, 227
Drapers’ Guild House, 55
Drebbel, Cornelis, 169, 191, 221, 223
camera obscura of, 123–24, 132–33, 332, 355
Huygens and, 62–63, 190, 193–94, 332, 355
inventions of, 62, 133
microscopes of, 62, 64, 122, 133, 173, 193–94
submarine of, 62–63, 133
Dryden, John, 196
Duarte, Diego, 169
Duarte, Francisca, 169
Duarte, Gaspar, 169
Due regole della prospettiva pratica, Le (Vignola), 85
Dujardin, Carel, 226
Dürer, Albrecht, 80, 84
Dutch East India Company (VOC), 20, 219
exotic specimens collected by, 14
Dutch Republic, 8, 19, 71, 208, 319
agricultural techniques developed by, 16
anti-Catholic prejudice in, 38–39
artists’ guilds in, 27
art market in, 25–26, 37, 212, 216, 267, 336
Bacon’s ideas known in, 190–91, 222–23
cabinets of curiosity in, 14, 135–36
Catholics in, 38–39, 48–49
children and childhood in, 46–47, 178–79
cloth trade in, 50, 54–55
colonial empire of, 14
decorative arts in, 15
defensive flooding of, 207–8, 210–11
descriptive impulse in, 222
economic collapse in, 211–12
in Eighty Years’ War with Spain, 13–14, 19, 167, 208, 221
England and, 167, 182–183; see also Anglo-Dutch wars
English fluency in, 202
envy and disdain toward, 17–18
global trade of, 14–15, 20, 217
Golden Age of, 13–14
hydraulic technology developed by, 15–16
immigrants from Southern Netherlands in, 21
maps as decor in, 216–17
marriage and courtship in, 38, 41–42
marriages of Protestants and Catholics in, 38
Micrographia’s wide readership in, 202
military technology developed in, 15
painting in, 15
poldering (land reclamation) in, 218
Protestantism as offical religion of, 38
rampjaar (year of catastrophe) in, 207–8, 211, 230, 267
Scots in, 50–51, 342
1672 riots in, 209–10
slave trade and, 14
in war with France and England (1672–78), 207–11
wealthy merchants in, 15
welfare system of, 17, 27
women’s literacy in, 100–101
women’s rights in, 40–41
working
class in, 16
Dyck, Antony van, 171, 174
Edward Culpepper, 294
Eeckhout, Gerbrand van den, 226
eggs (ova), 65, 244–45, 279
Eighty Years’ War, 13–14, 15, 19, 59, 167, 208, 221
electron microscopes, 320
Elsevier, Louys Aernoutsz, Interior of the Oude Kerk, Delft, Seen through a Stone Doorway, 155
emblem books, 323
embryos, 279
development of, 241–42, 243
England:
Dutch Republic and, 167, 182–183; see also Anglo-Dutch wars
Glorious Revolution in, 291–92
Leeuwenhoek’s trip to, 181–82, 183, 201
Van Hoogstraten’s trip to, 223
Englisham, George, 202
English language:
Dutch fluency in, 202
Leeuwenhoek’s claimed lack of, 202–3
epistolary novels, 234
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 116
“Essays on the Wonders of Painting” (Le Brun), 174
Euclid, 87
vision theory of, 76–77, 348
Euglena viridis, 253n
Evelyn, John, 25–26
expectations, vision and, 148, 317, 318
experimentation, science’s emphasis on, 185–94, 236
Eyck, Van, brothers, 8
Adoration of the Lamb, 8
eye:
anatomical studies of, 139–41
“aqueous humor” of, 114
camera obscura compared to, 140, 141, 360, 361
cornea of, 77, 115, 201, 250, 293, 309, 313
“crystalline humor” of (lens), 77, 87–88, 140
Hooke’s studies of, 201
Kepler on structure of, 140
Leeuwenhoek’s study of, 114–15, 293, 309, 313
lens of, 140
mirror compared to, 140
as optical instrument, 118, 140, 142, 361
retina of, 77, 87–88, 115, 140, 201
world as seen by, 6
eyeglasses, see spectacles
Faber, Johannes, 65
Fabritius, Carel, 42, 67, 70, 83, 85, 90, 92, 137, 143, 177, 270, 273, 276, 285, 337
death of, 69
The Goldfinch, 69, 138
lost paintings of, 69
The Sentry, 137
A View in Delft, 92, 285
Falco, Charles, 91
Familiar Letters (Howell), 234
Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, 138
Festen, Donnée, 32n
Feylingius, Johannes, 193
Filarete (Antonio di Pietro Averlino), 82, 90
“fine painters” (fijnschilders), 35
Fink, Daniel, 153
flea glasses, 103, 114, 319
floor tiles:
in Dutch genre and church paintings, 154–55
in Vermeer’s domestic paintings, 146, 154, 155, 311
flower paintings, Dutch, 155
Folkes, Martin, 302
Fontana, Francesco, 65–66, 197
Ford, Brian, 251, 300
foreshortening, 80–82, 83
Franco-Dutch War (1672–78), 207–11
Frederik Hendrik, Prince of Orange, 59, 167, 171, 172
Friedrich Wilhelm, Elector of Brandenburg, 225, 226–27
Frisius, Reinerus Gemma, 127, 128–29
Fromantiou, Hendrik de, 226
Fuller, Thomas, 50–51
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 320–21
Galen, 77, 87, 243
Galileo, 4, 65, 80, 85, 121, 127, 135, 316, 320, 333
Aristotelians ridiculed by, 186–87
astronomical discoveries of, 5–6
Inquisition and, 192
Jupiter’s moons discovered by, 262, 306
learning to see and, 118
microscopes of, 61–62, 65
moon’s irregular surface described by, 5, 9, 120, 262, 306, 316–17
on painting vs. sculpture, 136–37
perspective theory known by, 9, 120, 316, 333
telescopes of, 60–61, 65, 105, 111, 307
Gassendi, Pierre, 175, 324
Gauricus, Pomponius, 139
generation (reproduction), 242–45, 280
Aristotle on, 243
Leeuwenhoek’s studies of, 121, 245, 259, 277–81, 291, 293, 314
microscopic investigations of, 243–45
sex act and, 243; see also sex organs
“spontaneous,” 66, 242, 243, 279
genre paintings, 93–96
Geographer, The (Vermeer), 159–60, 162, 176, 217, 218–19
Leeuwenhoek as possible model for, 160, 161–63, 288
x-ray analysis of, 159n
Gerard, Balthasar, 38
Ghent, 15
Gheyn, Jacob de, II, 11, 123, 173
Gheyn, Jacob de, III, 123
Gifford, Melanie, 215
Giorgione, 225–26, 228
Giotto, 75
Giovanni du Pont, 62
glass, glassmaking, 183
imperfections in, 105
spheres of, 106
spherules (beads) of, 106–8
globes:
celestial, 219
in Vermeer’s paintings, 216, 218–19
Glorious Revolution, 291–92
God, Descartes’s definition of, 187
Goedaert, Johannes, 11
Gogh, Vincent van, 36
Goltzius, Hendrick, 62
Goncourt brothers, 286
Google Glass, 322
Gordon, Robert, 263
Gowing, Lawrence, 146
Goyen, Jan van, 171
Graaf, Reinier de, 229–30, 231, 232, 243–44, 246, 279, 280, 281, 380
sex organs studied by, 231, 244–45
Gravesande, Cornelis Isaaks ’s, 108, 160, 232, 250, 309
Gravesande, G. J. ’s, 285–86
Gravesend, England, 181, 201
Great Fire of London, 183, 264
Great Plague of London, 183
Greaves, John, 126
Gresham College, 184
Grew, Nehemiah, 206, 264, 310
Gruter, Isaac, 190
Gruter, Jacob, 190
guilds:
in Amsterdam, 52
of artists and artisans, 27, 37
role of, 26–27
see also St. Luke’s Guild, Delft
Guyanas, 14
Haan, Benedictus, 262–63
Haarlem, 93–94
Hacking, Ian, 117
The Hague, 18, 58–59, 123, 131, 164, 173, 175, 223, 225, 226–28, 275, 291, 292, 296
as center of Dutch scientific activity, 191
Confrerie Pictura in, 227
1672 riots in, 210
Halmael, Cornelia Jans Van, 161
Hals, Frans, 36, 93, 94, 208–9, 216, 231, 378
Merrymakers at Shrovetide, 93
Young Man and Woman in an Inn, 93
Ham, Johan, 277, 278
Hamlet (Shakespeare), ix
Harrington, James, 104
Harriot, Thomas, 9, 60, 164
Harris, John, 253n
Hartlib, Samuel, 5
Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, 107, 206, 280, 304
Harvey, William, 4, 140, 187, 240, 245, 279, 280
Hasan ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali al- (Alhazen), 77–78, 125–26, 130, 348, 360
Heere, Lucas de, 8
Heijnsbroeck, Pieter, 99, 102
Heinsius, Daniel, 190
heliocentric theory, 6, 120, 186, 253, 306, 316
Henrietta Maria, Queen Consort of England, 170
Henry VIII, King of England, 137
Hensbeeck, Hendrik, 275
Hérigone, Pierre, 142
Hesselin, Louis, 86
Hexham, Henry, 203
Heyden, Goris van der, 93
Heyden, Jan van der, 16, 92–93, 361
The Dam in Amsterdam, 92–93
View in Delft, 92
Hippocrates, 243
“Histor
y of Landscape Painting, The” (Constable), ix
History of the Royal Society, 195
Hobbes, Thomas, 175
Hockney, David, 91
Hodenpijl, Aldert, 262, 263
Hoefnagel, Jacob, 9–11
Hoefnagel, Joris, 10
Holbein, Hans, 137
Holland:
in Franco-Dutch War, 208
see also Dutch Republic
homunculus, 121, 279–80
Hondius, Hendrik, 142–43, 219
Hondius, Jacobus, 221
Honthorst, Gerard van, 171
Honthorst, Gerrit van, 74
Hooch, Pieter de, 70, 90, 94–95, 137, 146, 150, 155, 285
Interior with a Woman Drinking with Two Men, and a Maidservant, 146
Vermeer and, 95
Hooft, Pieter Cornelis, 168–69
Hoogheemraadschap (Water Board), Delft, 48
Hoogstraten, Frans van, 224
Hoogstraten, Samuel Van, 8, 32, 34, 42, 89–90, 134, 136, 137, 143, 152, 185, 222, 223–24, 233, 273, 276, 282, 324
Bacon quoted by, 223–24
camera obscura and, 138
English trip of, 223
self-portrait of, 224–25
View of the Hofburg in Vienna, 138
Hoogvliet, Jan, 302
Hooke, John, 195
Hooke, Robert, 5, 6, 10, 63, 108, 132, 185, 233, 235, 249, 264, 303, 310, 314, 315, 319, 372
artistic talent of, 195, 200
background of, 195–96
cells discovered and named by, 198
inventions and discoveries of, 196–97, 264
Leeuwenhoek’s observations of microscopic life duplicated by, 265–66
Micrographia of, see Micrographia
microscope designs of, 197, 204–5
microscopic observations by, 198–201
Newton and, 197
as Royal Society’s curator of experiments, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198–99, 264
unpleasant personality of, 196–97
on vivisection, 312–13
Horace, 186, 390
Horne, Johannes van, 231, 244–45
Horrocks, Jeremiah, 129n
Horst, Ewert van der, 174
Houbraken, Arnold, 28–29, 92, 137
Houckgeest, Gerard, 71, 85, 90, 146
Imaginary Catholic Church, 155
houding, 138
Howell, James, 234
Hubble Telescope, 319–20
Hudde, Johan van Waveren, 107–8, 175, 202
microscopes of, 207
Huguenots, in Amsterdam, 52
Huygens, Christiaan, 10, 11, 103, 107–8, 110, 163, 171, 197, 200, 202, 207, 249, 291, 316
Saturn’s rings discovered by, 10
on theories of vision, 76
Huygens, Constantijn (the elder), 4, 9–10, 29, 103, 108, 122, 131, 134, 161, 166, 173, 193, 202
art market and, 171–72
Bacon and, 190
camera obscura and, 123–24, 132–33, 143, 167, 172, 332, 355
Drebbel and, 62–63, 190, 193–94, 332, 355
female friends of, 169–70
Leeuwenhoek and, 173–74, 233, 237, 249, 275
as “Lord of Zuilichem,” 167
marriage of Suzanna van Baerle and, 168, 172