66. Foner, Reconstruction, 226.
67. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 368, 370.
68. Gordon-Reed, Andrew Johnson, 107.
69. Ibid., 128; Langguth, After Lincoln, 113.
70. Veto of the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill, Andrew Johnson, February 19, 1866, http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/veto-of-the-freedmens-bureau-bill, accessed February 24, 2015.
71. Ibid.; Langguth, After Lincoln, 135.
72. Confederate States of America—Mississippi Secession: “A Declaration of the Immediate Causes.”
73. Langguth, After Lincoln, 55.
74. “Labor in the Rebel States,” North American and United States Gazette.
75. Langguth, After Lincoln, 110.
76. Ross, Justice of Shattered Dreams, 115.
77. Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 107.
78. Ross, Justice of Shattered Dreams, 114.
79. Oshinksy, “Worse Than Slavery”; Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name.
80. Christopher Waldrep, “Substituting Law for the Lash: Emancipation and Legal Formalism in a Mississippi County Court,” Journal of American History 82, no. 4 (March 1996): 1435–37.
81. Mark T. Carleton, Politics and Punishment: The History of the Louisiana State Penal System (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971), 13, 31.
82. Donald H. Zeigler, “A Reassessment of the Younger Doctrine in Light of the Legislative History of Reconstruction,” Duke Law Journal 1983, no. 5 (November 1983): 994; Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name, 108–10.
83. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 4, 17.
84. Langguth, After Lincoln, 113–14.
85. Ibid., 113.
86. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 5, 6, 7, 11.
87. Ibid., 17; Wayne Flynt, Dixie’s Forgotten People: The South’s Poor Whites (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 35.
88. John H. Abel Jr. and LaWanda Cox, “Andrew Johnson and His Ghost Writers: An Analysis of the Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil Rights Veto Messages,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 48, no. 3 (December 1961): 469.
89. President Johnson’s Veto of the Civil Rights Act 1866, http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/veto-of-the-civil-rights-bill, accessed February 24, 2015.
90. Ibid.
91. Gordon-Reed, Andrew Johnson, 130.
92. Langguth, After Lincoln, 148.
93. Bobby L. Lovett, “Memphis Riots: White Reaction to Blacks in Memphis, May 1865–July 1866,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 38, no. 1 (Spring 1979): 9–33.
94. Barry A. Crouch, “Spirit of Lawlessness: White Violence; Texas Blacks, 1865–1868,” Journal of Social History 18, no. 2 (Winter 1984): 218.
95. Ibid., 217, 218, 221; Ross, Justice of Shattered Dreams, 147.
96. Gordon-Reed, Andrew Johnson, 128–29; Foner, Reconstruction, 264–65.
97. Langguth, After Lincoln, 170, 171, 172, 182; Gordon-Reed, Andrew Johnson, 112.
98. Douglass, “The Serfs of Russia … Were Given Three Acres of Land.”
99. Michael Les Benedict, “New Perspectives on the Waite Court,” Tulsa Law Review 47, no. 109 (2011): 116.
100. Wiecek, “Emancipation and Civic Status,” 92.
101. See the headnote in Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company, 118 U.S. 394 (1886).
102. “The Supreme Court: The First One Hundred Years, Landmark Cases—Slaughterhouse,” http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/antebellum/landmark_slaughterhouse.html, accessed March 5, 2015; The Slaughterhouse Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1873).
103. Ross, Justice of Shattered Dreams, 200.
104. “Virginia Minor Case Trial,” https://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/the-virginia-minor-case.htm, accessed August 30, 2006; Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162 (1874).
105. Bruce R. Trimble, Chief Justice Waite: Defender of the Public Interest (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1938), 162; United States v. Reese et al., 92 US 214 (1876).
106. Foner, Reconstruction, 437.
107. Trimble, Chief Justice Waite, 168; United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1876).
108. The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883).
109. Wiecek, “Emancipation and Civic Status,” 93, 94, 95.
110. Hall v. DeCuir, 95 U.S. 485 (1877).
111. Wiecek, “Emancipation and Civic Status,” 92.
112. Plessy v. Ferguson 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
113. Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).
114. “Disenfranchisement by Means of the Poll Tax,” Harvard Law Review 53, no. 4 (February 1940): 645–52.
115. Williams v. Mississippi, 170 U.S. 213 (1898).
116. Manfred Berg, “The Ticket to Freedom”: The NAACP and the Struggle for Black Political Integration (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2005), 105.
117. Wiecek, “Emancipation and Civic Status,” 89–90.
118. Ibid., 93–94; Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 475 (1903).
119. Equal Justice Initiative, “Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror,” (2015), 8.
120. Wiecek, “Emancipation and Civic Status,” 80.
Two Derailing the Great Migration
1. “Making the World ‘Safe for Democracy’: Woodrow Wilson Asks for War,” http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4943, accessed November 7, 2015.
2. Walter White to Governor Dorsey, July 10, 1918, http://www.maryturner.org/images/memorandum.pdf, accessed October 25, 2015.
3. “11 Lynched Instead of 6 as First Reported in Georgia: Names of Ringleaders Known,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 7, 1918.
4. Walter White to Governor Dorsey, July 10, 1918; C. Tyrone Forehand, “A Place to Lay Their Heads: Mary Turner and the Rampage of 1918,” http://www.maryturner.org/images/place.pdf, accessed October 25, 2015.
5. Philip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Random House, 2002), 245; Forehand, “A Place to Lay Their Heads”; Walter White to Governor Dorsey, July 10, 1918.
6. James Allen et al., Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Santa Fe, NM: Twin Palms Publishers, 2000), 8–35.
7. Walter White to Governor Dorsey, July 10, 1918.
8. James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1991), 16.
9. Quoted in Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Vintage Books, 2011), 165.
10. “The Truth About the North,” Chicago Commission on Race Relations, The Arrival in Chicago, 1922, in Black Protest and the Great Migration: A Brief History with Documents, ed. Eric Arnesen (Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s 2003), 67–68; Grossman, Land of Hope, 16, 18.
11. Ethan Michaeli, Defender: How the Legendary Black Newspaper Changed America: From the Age of the Pullman Porters to the Age of Obama (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), 62.
12. “Great Migration: The African-American Exodus North,” NPR, September 13, 2010, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129827444, accessed May 14, 2015; Earl Lewis, “Expectations, Economic Opportunities, and Life in the Industrial Age: Black Migration to Norfolk, Virginia, 1910–1945,” in The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender, ed. Joe William Trotter Jr. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 23.
13. Grossman, Land of Hope, 49.
14. Michaeli, Defender, 63.
15. Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: H. Regnery Co., 1955), 160.
16. Grossman, Land of Hope, 60.
17. Brian Kelly, Race, Class, and Power in the Alabama Coalfields, 1908–1921 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 150.
18. Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown; “Lynchings by State and Race: 1882–1968,” http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/shipp/lynchingsstate.html, accessed November 8, 2015; Amy Louise Wood, Lynching and Spectacle: Witnessing Racial Violence in America, 1890–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); William H. Chafe, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, ed., Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South (New York: New Press, 2001), 206–7, 211–16; Danielle McGuire, At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape and Resistance—a New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power (New York: Knopf, 2010).
19. Grossman, Land of Hope, 34; Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Vintage Books, 1998), 159; Editor’s Mail, Anonymous letter from Georgia, Chicago Defender April 28, 1917.
20. Grossman, Land of Hope, 17; Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 157–58.
21. Pete R. Daniel, The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1901–1969 (Chicago and Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).
22. Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 166, 167; Oh Freedom After While, directed by Steven John Ross and narrated by Julian Bond (California Newsreel, 1999), 56 minutes, DVD.
23. Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 170.
24. “Better Reasons for Going North,” Chicago Defender, March 31, 1917; Michaelis, Defender, 64.
25. Chafe, Remembering Jim Crow, 207.
26. “Sharecropper Migration,” American Experience, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/flood-sharecroppers, accessed June 21, 2015; Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 37.
27. Grossman, The Land of Hope, 36; Emmett J. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Preliminary Economic Studies of the War, no. 16, ed. David Kinley (New York: Oxford University Press, 1920), 82.
28. Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 164; John A. Farrell, Clarence Darrow: Attorney for the Damned (New York: Vintage Books, 2012), 402; Joe William Trotter Jr., “Introduction: Black Migration in Historical Perspective, a Review of the Literature,” in The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 13; Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 77.
29. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 161, 164.
30. Grossman, Land of Hope, 40; Frank Alexander Ross and Louise Venable Kennedy, A Bibliography of Negro Migration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934), 48, https://archive.org/stream/bibliographynegr00rossmiss/bibliographynegr00rossmiss_djvu.txt, accessed November 8, 2015.
31. Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Vintage Books, 1998).
32. Grossman, The Land of Hope, 52, 53, 64.
33. Ibid., 39.
34. “Luring Labor North,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, August 22, 1916, in Black Protest and the Great Migration, ed. Arnesen, 59–60.
35. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 165.
36. http://www.measuringworth.com/uscompare/relativevalue.php.
37. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 73.
38. “South Hurt by Labor Shortage,” Chicago Defender, August 4, 1923.
39. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 76. Emphasis in original.
40. “Arrest White Man for Enticing Men North,” Chicago Defender, May 19, 1917; “1100 Negroes Desert Savannah, Georgia,” McDowell Times, August 11, 1916, in Black Protest and the Great Migration, 59; “Workmen Kept from Leaving: Southerners like Pharaoh Loathe to Let Colored Folk Go, Agents Arrested, Workmen Jailed for Attempting to Come North,” Afro-American, August 19, 1916; “White Men and Party Held,” Chicago Defender, March 24, 1917; “Labor Agents Held as Race Deserts South,” Chicago Defender, January 31, 1920.
41. Spencer R. Crew, Field to Factory: Afro-American Migration, 1915–1940 (Washington, D.C.: National Museum of American History, 1987), 6–7.
42. Grossman, Land of Hope, 75.
43. Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York: Owl Books, 2004), 1–2; James R. Grossman, “The White Man’s Union: The Great Migration and the Resonance of Race and Class in Chicago, 1916–1922,” in The Great Migration in Historical Perspective, 88.
44. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press 1972); Pero Gaglo Dagbovie, “Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington,” Journal of African American History 92, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 239–64.
45. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 163. Emphasis added.
46. Ibid., 163.
47. Ibid., 165–66.
48. Ibid., 170.
49. Grossman, Land of Hope, 44.
50. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 76.
51. “Bars Chicago Defender from Arkansas County,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 16, 1920.
52. Grossman, Land of Hope, 44.
53. Grossman, “The White Man’s Union,” 91.
54. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 167.
55. Grossman, Land of Hope, 44.
56. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 77; Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 165.
57. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 78.
58. Ibid., 77.
59. Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 163.
60. “Workmen Kept from Leaving,” Afro-American, August 19, 1916.
61. “Arrest Workers Who Flee from Southern Farms,” Chicago Defender, May 5, 1923.
62. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 77.
63. Ottley, The Lonely Warrior, 165.
64. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 74.
65. Grossman, Land of Hope, 50.
66. Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns, 163; Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 77.
67. Scott, Negro Migration During the War, 78.
68. Kelly, Race, Class, and Power in the Alabama Coalfields, 149.
69. Grossman, Land of Hope, 49.
70. Kelly, Race, Class, and Power in the Alabama Coalfields, 150.
71. Judith Stein, The World of Marcus Garvey: Race and Class in Modern Society (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991), 40.
72. Grossman, Land of Hope, 34; Linda McMurry Edwards, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (New York: Oxford University Press 1998), 144.
73. “More Thousands Kiss the South a Last Good-By,” Chicago Defender, December 30, 1922.
74. Grossman, Land of Hope, 60.
75. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 404.
76. “Jim Crow Stories: Red Summer 1919,” https://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_red.html, accessed November 8, 2015.
77. Cameron McWhirter, Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2011); Michaeli, Defender, 110–14.
78. “The Truth About the North,” in Black Protest and the Great Migration, 68.
79. N. Caroline Harney and James Charlton, “The Siege on South Peoria Street,” Chicago Reader, January 13, 2000, http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/the-siege-on-south-peoria-street/Content?oid=901207, accessed June 20, 2015.
80. Whet Moser, “How White Housing Riots Shaped Chicago: Over Two Decades, the City Was Wracked by Violence. The Policies That Fed Attacks, and Those That Resulted from It, Changed the Landscape of Chicago—and Baltimore,” Chicago Magazine, April 29, 2015, http://www.chicagomag.com/city-life/April-2015/How-White-Housing-Riots-Shaped-Chicago, accessed June 20, 2015.
81. George Edmund Haynes, “Negroes Move North: Their Departure from the South,” Survey 40, no. 5 (May 4, 1918): 116.
82. Steven Watts, The People’s Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (New York: Knopf, 2005), 178–87.
83. Scott Martelle, Detroit: A Biography (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2012), 85; Boyle, Arc of Justice, 7.
84. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 9.
85. Walter White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White, foreword by Andrew Yo
ung (New York: Viking Press, 1948; Athens: Brown Thraser of the University of Georgia, 1995), 73.
86. Martelle, Detroit, 90–91.
87. Beth Tompkins Bates, The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 105; Michigan Reports: Cases Decided in the Michigan Supreme Court, from March 30–June 5, 1922, no. 218 (Chicago: Callaghan and Company, 1922): 625–32.
88. Bates, The Making of Black Detroit, 105; Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 400; Roneisha Mullen and Dale Rich, “Black History Month: Doctor Barred from Home, an Angry Mob Greets Physician in All-White Neighborhood in 1925,” Detroit News February 17, 2011, http://www.detroitnews.com/article/20110217/METRO/102170372#ixzz3diiHp7Z0, accessed June 21, 2015.
89. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 20, 22.
90. Thomas Dyja, The Dilemma of Black Identity in America: Walter White (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2008), 90.
91. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 16.
92. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 404.
93. McWhirter, Red Summer, 98–110; Rawn James Jr., “The Forgotten Washington Race War of 1919,” History News Network, February 28, 2010, http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/123811, accessed November 8, 2015.
94. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 404; Paul Ortiz, “Ocoee, Florida: Remembering the Single Bloodiest Day in American Political History,” Facing South, http://www.southernstudies.org/2010/05/ocoee-florida-remembering-the-single-bloodiest-day-in-modern-us-political-history.html, accessed November 8, 2015.
95. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 400.
96. Ibid., 413.
97. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 170.
98. Ibid., 133–35.
99. Phyllis Vine, One Man’s Castle: Clarence Darrow in Defense of the American Dream (New York: Amistad, 2004), 118.
100. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 19.
101. Ibid., 182–84.
102. Ibid., 184.
103. Ibid., 184–85.
104. Bates, The Making of Black Detroit, 110.
105. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 195–96.
106. Ibid., 185–86.
107. Ibid., 187–90.
108. Vine, One Man’s Castle, 137; Boyle, Arc of Justice, 186.
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