109. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 194–195, 300, 304.
110. Vine, One Man’s Castle, 164.
111. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 174.
112. Thomas Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996, 2005), 24.
113. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 178–79.
114. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 417.
115. White, A Man Called White, 74–75.
116. Martelle, Detroit, 111.
117. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 412.
118. Ibid., 406.
119. Ibid., 409–410; White, A Man Called White, 77–78.
120. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 413, 415.
121. Ibid., 418.
122. Ibid., 399.
123. Sondra Kathyrn Wilson, In Search of Democracy: The NAACP and the Writings of James Weldon Johnson, Walter White and Roy Wilkins, 1920–1977 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 73.
124. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 423.
125. Ibid., 425.
126. Trial Transcript, Monday, May 10, 1926, 9:30 A.M., 10.
127. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 425.
128. Ibid., 423–25.
129. Trial Transcript, Monday, May 10, 1926, 9:30 A.M., 11.
130. Farrell, Clarence Darrow, 426.
131. Trial Transcript, Monday, May 10, 1926, 9:30 A.M., 7.
132. Boyle, Arc of Justice, 190, 246, 344–346.
Three Burning Brown to the Ground
1. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 97–102; No. 76–811, Regents of the University of California v. Bakke Opinion Drafts—Marshall (1 of 2), p. 11, Lewis Powell Papers, Washington and Lee School of Law, http://law2.wlu.edu/powellarchives/page.asp?pageid=1322, accessed July 7, 2015.
2. Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950).
3. Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, 305 U.S. 337 (1938).
4. McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637 (1950).
5. Genna Rae McNeil, Groundwork: Charles Hamilton Houston and the Struggle for Civil Rights, foreword by Judge A. Leon Higginbotham Jr. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983); Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004); Mark Tushnet, Making Civil Rights Law: Thurgood Marshall and the Supreme Court, 1936–1961 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
6. Brett Gadsden, Between North and South: Delaware, Desegregation, and the Myth of American Sectionalism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 111.
7. Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Penguin Books, 2002), 108–9.
8. Jill Ogline Titus, Brown’s Battleground: Students, Segregationists and the Struggle for Justice in Prince Edward County, Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 15.
9. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 80–81; Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 3.
10. Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 4.
11. I use the term “Deep South” to refer to Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina.
12. Tomiko Brown-Nagin, Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 95–96, 445.
13. State Department of Education of Louisiana, “Ninety-Fifth Annual Report for the Session 1943–44,” Bulletin No. 543 (December 1944), 170–71.
14. Carol Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals: The NAACP and the Struggle for Colonial Liberation, 1941–1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 292.
15. Kluger, Simple Justice, 3, 8.
16. Jessie Parkhurst Guzman, ed., Negro Year Book: A Review of Events Affecting Negro Life, 1941–1946 (Tuskegee, AL: Tuskegee Institute, 1947), 70; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1950 United States Census of Population, Series PC-14 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1953), 4.
17. Morris v. Williams 59 F. Supp. 508 (1944).
18. Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950s (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969, 1997), 5, 9.
19. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 26.
20. Roy Wilkins, Standing Fast: The Autobiography of Roy Wilkins (New York: Da Capo Press, 1994), 218.
21. Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: The President, vol. 2 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 190.
22. Ambrose, Eisenhower, 143; Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 214.
23. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize, 12. The initial calculation was the equivalent in 1998 of $632 million, which in 2014 is comparable to $1.2 trillion. See http://www.measuringworth.com/uscompare/relativevalue.php.
24. Sarah Caroline Thuesen, Greater Than Equal: African American Struggles for Schools and Citizenship in North Carolina, 1919–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 204; Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 55, 57; Wilkins, Standing Fast, 218.
25. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize, 214.
26. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 218.
27. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 87.
28. Barbara Barksdale Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War: The Sputnik Crisis and National Defense Education Act of 1958 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981), 43.
29. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 80.
30. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 233–34.
31. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 45–46.
32. Ibid., 41; U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census Population: 1950, pt. 11, vol. 2, by Howard G. Brunsman (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952), 214.
33. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 46; U.S. Department of Commerce, Census of Population, 124.
34. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 54–56.
35. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 214.
36. Angie Maxwell, The Indicted South: Public Criticism, Southern Inferiority, and the Politics of Whiteness (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 194.
37. Ibid., 193; John Kyle Day, The Southern Manifesto: Massive Resistance and the Fight to Preserve Segregation (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2014), 7.
38. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 215; Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 27.
39. Jack Dougherty, More Than One Struggle: The Evolution of Black School Reform in Milwaukee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
40. Ronald P. Formisano, Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s, 2d ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
41. Berg, Ticket to Freedom, 156.
42. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 7.
43. Berg, Ticket to Freedom, 156; Michael J. Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 180; Wilkins, Standing Fast, 223.
44. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 30.
45. Guzman, Negro Yearbook, 70; David C. Colby, “The Voting Rights Act and Black Registration in Mississippi,” Publius 16, no. 4, Assessing the Effects of the U.S. Voting Rights Act (Autumn 1986): 127.
46. Berg, Ticket to Freedom, 156; Day, The Southern Manifesto, 17.
47. William Bradford Huie, “The Shocking Story of Approved Killing in Mississippi,” The Murder of Emmett Till, American Experience, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/till/sfeature/sf_look_confession.html, accessed June 25, 2015.
48. Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education, 180.
49. Charles M. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995, 2007), 1.
50. Berg, Ticket to Freedom, 155.
51. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 30.
52. Guzman, The N
egro Yearbook, 70.
53. Alabama Black Belt Counties Registered Voters in 1960, Table 6, from the records of Assistant U.S. Attorney General for Civil Rights Burke Marshall, http://www.teachingforchange.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/1960registeredvoters.pdf, accessed July 3, 2015.
54. Klarman, Brown v. Board, 181; Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964).
55. Brown v. Board of Education, 349 U.S. 294 (1955).
56. Day, The Southern Manifesto, 14–15; Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 127.
57. Anderson, Bourgeois Radicals, 304.
58. Alexander Azarian and Eden Fesshazion, “The State Flag of Georgia: The 1956 Change in Its Historical Context,” Senate Research Office, State of Georgia; Donald Lee Grant, The Way It Was in the South: The Black Experience in Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia, 2001), 378.
59. Day, The Southern Manifesto, 9–10.
60. Ibid., 9, 11.
61. Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education, 169.
62. Day, The Southern Manifesto; Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 14–15; “The Southern Manifesto of 1956, March 12, 1956,” http://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1951-2000/The-Southern-Manifesto-of-1956, accessed June 28, 2015.
63. Jack W. Peltason, Fifty-eight Lonely Men: Southern Federal Judges and School Desegregation (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971), 93.
64. Charles J. Ogletree Jr., All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half-Century of Brown v. Board of Education (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 130–31.
65. Erwin Chemerinsky, The Case Against the Supreme Court (New York: Viking, 2014), 139.
66. Thuesen, Greater Than Equal, 202; William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press 1981).
67. Thuesen, Greater Than Equal, 205; U.S. Department of Commerce, Census of Population: 1950, 109, 122, 125, 129, 130, 137, 154, 165, 169, 214, 353.
68. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 186.
69. Gadsden, Between North and South, 147; Tony Allan Freyer, Little Rock on Trial: Cooper v. Aaron and School Desegregation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007).
70. Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1 (1958); Ogletree, All Deliberate Speed, 129.
71. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 249.
72. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 185–87.
73. About fifty white students ended up going to a neighboring school about forty miles away. Transportation costs were covered by the state.
74. Sondra Gordy, Finding the Lost Year: What Happened When Little Rock Closed Its Public Schools (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2009), 71.
75. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 258.
76. Gadsden, Between North and South, 147.
77. Bob Smith, They Closed Their Schools: Prince Edward County, Virginia, 1951–64 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 151–52; Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 275.
78. Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 19.
79. Maxwell, The Indicted South, 179–80.
80. Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 22.
81. Day, The Southern Manifesto, 12.
82. Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 31.
83. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 190–91.
84. Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 10.
85. Christopher Bonastia, Southern Stalemate: Five Years Without Public Education in Prince Edward County, Virginia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 2; “Study of Prince Edward Shows Closed Schools Hurt Negroes,” New York Times, October 18, 1964.
86. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 192.
87. “The Forgotten Children of the ‘New Frontier’: Prince Edward County,” Afro-American, April 8, 1961.
88. “Prince Edward Says Schools Not Required,” Washington Post, July 7, 1961.
89. Griffin et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County et al., 375 U.S. 391 (1964); Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 377 U.S. 218 (1964).
90. Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 10.
91. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 135; Klarman, Brown v. Board of Education, 165.
92. “Prince Edward County Schools Again Closed by County,” Washington Post, April 25, 1969.
93. Ogletree, All Deliberate Speed, 128.
94. Smith, They Closed Their Schools, 147.
95. Lisa A. Hohl, “Open the Doors: An Analysis of the Prince Edward County, Virginia Free School Association” (master’s thesis, University of Richmond, 1993).
96. Bonastia, Southern Stalemate, 157.
97. Liza Mundy, “Making Up for Lost Time: Virginia Has Created a Scholarship Program to Give African American Adults from Prince Edward County Something They Were Denied as Children: An Education,” Washington Post, November 5, 2006.
98. Bonastia, Southern Stalemate, 157.
99. See, for example, Struggles in Steel, produced by Ray Henderson and Tony Buba (California Newsreel, 1996), 58 minutes, DVD.
100. U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, “1940–2010: How Has America Changed?,” http://www.census.gov/library/infographics/1940_census_change.html, accessed July 1, 2015.
101. Martin Chancey, “The Relative Decline of the United States Economy,” Science and Society 26, no. 4 (Fall 1962): 385–99.
102. Jefferson Cowie and Joseph Heathcott, ed., Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of Deindustrialization, foreword by Barry Bluestone (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 2003); Derek Thompson, “Where Did All the Workers Go? 60 Years of Economic Change in 1 Graph,” Atlantic January 26, 2012, http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2012/01/where-did-all-the-workers-go-60-years-of-economic-change-in-1-graph/252018, accessed June 30, 2015; Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation, “The Knowledge-Based Economy” (Paris, 1996): 1–46.
103. Joe Weisenthal, “Here’s the New Ranking of Top Countries in Reading, Science, and Math,” Business Insider, December 3, 2013, http://www.businessinsider.com/pisa-rankings-2013-12, accessed July 4, 2015; Stephanie Banchero, “U.S. High-School Students Slip in Global Rankings,” Wall Street Journal, December 3, 2013, http://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304579404579234511824563116?mod=djemalertNEWS, accessed July 4, 2015.
104. Bonastia, Southern Stalemate, 7; Titus, Brown’s Battleground, 32–33.
105. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 213.
106. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 222.
107. Ibid., 241–42.
108. Ibid., 238–39; Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 213–17; Berg, Ticket to Freedom, 157.
109. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 216–17; Wilkins, Standing Fast, 241–42.
110. George Lewis, “White South, Red Nation: Massive Resistance and the Cold War,” in Clive Webb, ed., Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 127.
111. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance, 221.
112. Ibid., 120, 186–87; Charles C. Bolton, “Mississippi’s School Equalization Program, 1945–1954: ‘A Last Gasp to Try to Maintain a Segregated Educational System,’ ” Journal of Southern History 66, no. 4 (November 2000): 790.
113. Robert Divine, The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower’s Response to the Soviet Satellite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), xiv–xv.
114. John Finney, “U.S. Missile Experts Shaken by Sputnik: Weight of Satellite Seen as Evidence of Soviet Superiority in Rocketry,” New York Times, October 13, 1957.
115. “The Military Meaning,” Washington Post, October 8, 1957.
116. Matthew Brzenzinski, Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age (New York: Times Books, 2007), 221.
117. Brzenzinski, Red Moon Rising, 222.
118. Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War, 3.
119. Ibid., 102.
120. Divine, The Sputnik Challenge, 52, 54–55, 57.
121. Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War, 37–38, 50, 52–53, 102.
122. Day, The Souther
n Manifesto, 6.
123. Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War, 4.
124. Anderson, Eyes off the Prize, 214–15.
125. Dwight D. Eisenhower to Swede Hazlett, October 23, 1954, http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_brown_v_boe/1954_10_23_DDE_to_Hazlett.pdf, accessed November 14, 2015.
126. Dwight D. Eisenhower to Swede Hazlett, July 27, 1957, http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/civil_rights_brown_v_boe/1957_07_22_DDE_to_Hazlett.pdf, accessed November 14, 2015.
127. Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War, 43, 67, 119.
128. Wilkins, Standing Fast, 255.
129. Clowse, Brainpower for the Cold War, 119–21.
130. Ibid., 47, 104, 138.
131. Robert A. Margo, Race and Schooling in the South, 1880–1950: An Economic History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 15, http://www.nber.org/books/marg90-1, accessed July 14, 2015.
132. “Doctoral Degree Awards to African Americans Reach Another All-Time High,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2006, http://www.jbhe.com/news_views/50_black_doctoraldegrees.html, accessed July 11, 2015. (Note that the growth cited in this article is driven overwhelmingly by doctorates in education.)
133. Rodney C. Adkins, “America Desperately Needs More STEM Students. Here’s How to Get Them,” Forbes July 9, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2012/07/09/america-desperately-needs-more-stem-students-heres-how-to-get-them, accessed July 11, 2015.
134. Kluger, Simple Justice, 3.
135. Susan Egerter, Paula Braveman, et al., “Issue Brief No. 5, Exploring the Social Determinants of Health: Education and Health,” Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (April 2011): 1–17; “Is this Representative Government? Voting Rates by Educational Attainment,” Postsecondary Education Opportunity, no. 48 (June 1996), http://www.postsecondary.org/last12/48696Voting.pdf, accessed July 4, 2015.
136. Klarman, Brown v. Board, 165, 182, 185; Gary Orfield, Susan E. Eaton, and the Harvard Project on School Desegregation, Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown v. Board of Education (New York: New Press 1996); Erica Frankenberg and Gary Orfield, ed., The Resegregation of Suburban Schools: A Hidden Crisis in American Education (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education, 2012).
137. Gordy, Finding the Lost Year, 170, 171.
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