From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68
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From the Gracchi to Nero
‘Still the best introduction to Roman history’
Miriam Griffin, University of Oxford, UK
‘For a concise, factual narrative of the Roman world’s traumatic transformation from Republic to Empire, [it] remains unsurpassed. As a foundation for university and college courses, it is invaluable.’
Richard Talbert, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA
‘Without a rival as a guide to the intricacies of Republican politics.’
Greg Woolf, University of St. Andrews, UK
‘A classic textbook: clear, authoritative and balanced in its judgements … it has established itself as the fundamental modern work of reference for teachers, sixth-formers and university students … it is still the best and most reliable modern account of the period.’
Tim Cornell, University of Manchester, UK
‘This book is a modern classic. It provides a clear narrative of the two centuries from 133 B.C. to 68 A.D., but it is especially valuable for Scullard’s extensive footnotes which provide undergraduates with both the ancient sources and the most important scholarly contributions.’
Ronald Mellor, University of California at Los Angeles, USA
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H. H. Scullard
From the Gracchi to Nero
A history of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68
With a new foreword by Dominic Rathbone
London and New York
First published 1959 by Methuen & Co.
First published in Routledge Classics 2011
by Routledge
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This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.
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© 1959, 1963, 1970, 1976, 1982 H. H. Scullard
Foreword © 2011 Dominic Rathbone
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
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ISBN 0-203-84478-5 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN10: 0–415–58488–4 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0–203–84478–5 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978–0–415–58488–3 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–84478–6 (ebk)
CONTENTS
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE x
PREFACE xxi
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION xxii
PREFACE TO THIRD, FOURTH AND FIFTH EDITIONS xxii
FOREWORD xxiv
I Rome at the Cross-Roads 1
1. Introductory 1
2. The Growth of Rome’s Empire 2
3. The Senatorial Government 4
4. The People and the Knights 7
5. Greek Cultural Influences on Roman Life 8
6. The Effects of Wealth and Slavery 11
7. Rome’s Allies 13
8. Economic Changes and the Land Problem 16
II The Gracchi 19
1. Attempts at Reform 19
2. Tiberius Gracchus 20
3. The Land-bill of Tiberius Gracchus 22
4. The Importance of Gracchus’ Attempt 24
5. The Land Commission, Scipio Aemilianus and the Allies 25
6. The Legislation of Gaius Gracchus 27
7. The Opposition to Gaius Gracchus 30
8. The Importance of the Gracchi 32
9. Foreign Affairs: Asia and Gaul 33
III The Rise and Fall of Marius 36
1. The Senatorial Settlement 36
2. The Metelli and Marius 37
3. The Outbreak of War against Jugurtha 39
4. The Defeat of Jugurtha 41
5. The Northern Menace and its Political Repercussions 44
6. L. Appuleius Saturninus 46
7. Marius’ Victory over the Germans 47
8. Marius’ Sixth Consulship (100 B.C.) 49
IV The Rise and Fall of Sulla 52
1. The Nineties 52
2. The Younger Drusus 53
3. The Outbreak of the Italian or Social War 54
4. The Italian or Social War 56
5. Sulpicius’ Tribunate and Sulla’s Capture of Rome 58
6. Cinna 60
7. Mithridates, King of Pontus 61
8. The First Mithridatic War 63
9. Civil War 65
10. Sullanum Regnum 67
11. Sulla’s Reforms 68
12. Sulla’s Retirement 71
V The Rise of Pompey 73
1. The Counter-revolution of Lepidus 73
2. Q. Sertorius 74
3. The Senate’s Administration 77
4. Spartacus 79
5. The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (70 B.C.) 80
6. Pompey’s Commands 82
7. The Pirates 83
8. The Third Mithridatic War: Lucullus 84
9. Pompey’s Victory 86
10. Pompey’s Settlement of the East 88
VI Pompey and Caesar 90
1. Crassus and Caesar 90
2. Catiline’s Conspiracy 93
3. The Return of Pompey 95
4. The First Triumvirate 96
5. Caesar’s First Consulship (59 B.C.) 97
6. Clodius 99
7. The Renewal and Breakdown of the Triumvirate 101
8. Crassus and Parthia 105
VII The Domination of Caesar 107
1. Conditions in Gaul 107
2. The Reduction of Gaul (58–56 B.C.) 109
3. Germany and Britain (55–54 B.C.) 111
4. Revolt and Reconquest 112
5. Civil War in Italy, Africa and Spain (49 B.C.) 114
6. War in Greece, Egypt and Asia (48–47 B.C.) 116
7. The End of the Civil War 119
8. Reform and Reconstruction 121
9. Policy and Administration 124
10. Caesar’s Autocracy 125
VIII The Second Triumvirate 131
1. The Rise of Antony 131
2. The Rise of Octavian 132
3. The Second Triumvirate and Philippi 134
4. Octavian’s Consolidation of the West 137
5. Antony in the East 140
6. The Final Break and War: Actium 143
IX Economic and Social Life in Italy and the Provinces in the Late Republic 146
1. Agriculture, Industry and Trade 146
2. The Aristocracy 149
3. The Knights 151
4. Other Classes 151
5. The City 153
6. The Provinces 154
X Art, Literature and Thought in the Late Republic 159
1. Graeco–Roman Culture 159
2. Art and Architecture 161
3. The Poets 163
4. Historical Writing 166
5. Oratory 169
6. Education and Learning 170
7. Law 171
8. Philosophy and Religion 173
XI The Augustan Principate 176
1. Octavian’s Problem 176
2. The First Settlement (27 B.C.) 178
3. The Second Settlement (23 B.C.) 180
4. Consolidation of the Principate 181
5. The Last Twenty-five Years of Augustus’ Principate 183
6. Princeps and Senate 185
7. The Executive: Magistrates and Officials 189
8. Rome and Italy 192
9. Social Reforms 195
10. Religious Reforms 197
11. Virgil, Horace and Livy 199
12. Other Writers of the Augustan Age 203
XII Frontiers and Provinces 205
1. Imperial Problems 205
2. The Army 205
3. The Eastern Frontier 208
4. Africa, Spain and Gaul 212
5. The Northern Frontier 214
6. Provincial Administration 219
7. Augustus 223
XIII Tiberius and Gaius 226
1. The Accession of Tiberius 226
2. Germanicus 228
3. The Civil Government of Tiberius 230
4. Sejanus 232
5. Provincial Affairs under Tiberius 234
6. Tiberius’ Last Years 236
7. Gaius (Caligula) 239
8. The Provincial Policy of Gaius 240
XIV Claudius and Nero 243
1. The Accession of Claudius 243
2. Claudius and the Senate 245
3. Claudius’ Centralized Administration 246
4. The Provincial Policy of Claudius 249
5. The Conquest of Britain 252
6. Court History under Claudius 255
7. Nero’s First Years 256
8. The Administration of Seneca and Burrus 258
9. Nero the Artist 259
10. The Gathering Storm 260
11. The Provinces and Foreign Affairs 263
12. The Storm Breaks 268
XV Economic and Social Life in the Early Empire 272
1. Agriculture 272
2. Industry and Trade 273
3. Trade Beyond the Empire 277
4. General Economic Conditions 279
5. The Senatorial Class 283
6. Social Life 285
XVI Art, Literature and Religion in the Julio-Claudian Period 292
1. Architecture and Art 292
2. Post-Augustan Literature 295
3. The Writers 297
4. Philosophy and Religion 302
5. Judaism and Christianity 306
ABBREVIATIONS 311
NOTES 313
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 396
INDEX 399
MAPS AND TABLE
The Roman Empire circa A.D. 68 xxx–xxxi
The Roman Empire circa 133 B.C. 224
The Roman Empire at the Death of Augustus 224
Genealogical Tree of the Chief Members of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty 270
Italy 290
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
133
Tiberius Gracchus, tribune, proposes a land law. Opposed by tribune Octavius who is deposed; land law passed and land-commission established. Pergamum bequeathed to Rome by Attalus III. Gracchus murdered. Scipio Aemilianus storms Numantia and settles Spain. Slave war continues in Sicily
132
Court established to punish Gracchus’ supporters. Land-commission working. Slave-war ended and Sicily reorganized. Revolt of Aristonicusin Asia Minor
131
Lex tabellaria of tribune Papirius Carbo establishes secret ballot for legislation
130
Aristonicus defeated by Perperna
129
Death of Scipio Aemilianus. Organization of province of Asia
126
Law of tribune Pennus de peregrinis. Sardinia restless
125
M. Fulvius Flaccus, consul, proposes enfranchisement of the Latins. Revolt of Fregellae
124
Defeated Fregellans settled at Fabrateria. War against Arverni and Allobroges in Gaul
123
First tribunate of Gaius Gracchus who proposes many laws. Lex Rubria (or 122) establishes Junonia on the site of Carthage; later repealed. Castellum at Aquae Sextiae near Massilia
122
Second tribunate of Gaius Gracchus and further legislation. Opposition of M. Livius Drusus. Gracchus fails to win re-election for 121. Balearic Islands subdued and colonies founded at Palma and Pollentia
121
Senate passes the ‘last decree’. Civil disorder in which Gaius Gracchus is killed; his followers executed by Opimius. Defeat of Arverni and Allobroges; Via Domitia constructed in southern Gaul
120
Trial and acquittal of Opimius
119
Marius, as tribune, carries legislation to improve voting methods. Gracchan land-commission abolished. Lex agraria
118
Colony at Narbo Martius in southern Gaul. Adherbal, Hiempsal and Jugurtha become joint rulers of Numidia
117
Death of Hiempsal
116
Jugurtha consolidates his position. Senatorial commission sent to settle Numidian affairs
115
Aemilius Scaurus, consul, regulates apportionment of freedmen in tribes
114
Marius in Spain. Scordisci defeat C. Cato in Macedonia
113
Cn. Carbo defeated at Noreia by Cimbri
112
Jugurtha sacks Cirta. Rome declares war on Jugurtha
111
Lex agraria (lex Thoria?). Temporary agreement with Jugurtha
110
Mamilian enquiry. Renewal of war in Africa; surrender of Aulus Albinus
109
Metellus gains some success against Jugurtha
107
Marius, elected consul, enlists volunteers and proletarii; succeeds Metellus and captures Capsa. Tigurini defeat Cassius in Gaul
106
Birth of Cicero and Pompey. Caepio’s lex iudiciaria. Marius advances into western Numidia. Bocchus of Mauretania surrenders Jugurtha to Sulla
105
Cimbri and Teutones destroy armies of Caepio and Mallius at Arausio
104
Judiciary law of Servilius Glaucia. Marius, consul II, reorganizes Roman army. Lex Domitia concerning election to the priestly colleges. Second Sicilian Slave War
103
Saturninus tribune: corn law, lex de maiestate, land-allotments for Marius’ veterans. Marius, consul III, trains army in Gaul
102
Marius, consul IV, defeats Teutones near Aquae Sextiae. M. Antonius sent to Cilicia to deal with pirates
101
Marius, consul V, and Catulus defeat Cimbri near Vercellae
100
Marius consul VI. Legislation of Saturninus. Marius breaks with Saturninus and Glaucia; rioting in Rome; senatus consultum ultimum; Marius restores order. Death of Saturninus and Glaucia. Birth of Julius Caesar. Second Sicilian Slave War ended. Colony settled at Eporedia in Gallia Cisalpina