From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68

by H. H. Scullard

  24 THE VIGINTIVIRATE. This group of offices comprised iiiviri monetales (mint-officials), ivviri viarum curandarum (in charge of the streets of Rome), iiiviri capitales (a kind of police) and xviri stlitibus iudicandis (who had jurisdiction in cases concerning the freedom of citizens). The two first colleges seem to have provided the surer path to later military commands in the emperor’s service: see E. Birley, Proc. Br. Acad., xxxix, 197 ff., who also believes that military service, as tribunus laticlavius, was not an essential qualification for entry into the Senate, though it was a necessary prerequisite for all senators who wished to be considered for appointment in the emperor’s service. On possible variations in the early stages of the senatorial career see A. McAlindon, JRS, 1957, 191 ff. On the leges annales and the minimum age for office, see J. Morris, Listy Filologicke, 1964, 316 ff. [p. 189]

  25 THE ELECTIONS. For this view, as opposed to the older belief that throughout his reign Augustus systematically ‘rigged’ the elections, see A. H. M. Jones, JRS, 1955, 9 ff. (= Studies, ch. iii). For the preponderance first of nobles, then of new men, see R. Syme, Rom. Rev., 362, 372 ff., 434 f. P. A. Brunt (JRS, 1961, 71 ff.) has argued that Jones’s theory is not supported by the Fasti: the humbler men became suffect consuls, while the ordinary consulship was reserved for men of consular lineage, and ‘it should not be assumed that Augustus normally refrained from influenceing the consular elections’. In ‘Imperial Control of the Elections under the Early Principate’, Historia, 1967, 207 ff., B. Levick concludes ‘in the Julio-Claudian era there were no legally defined, cut and dried rights called nominatio, commendatio, and suffragatio, which the Princeps exercised in a fixed and rigid way’ (p. 228). See also R. Frei-Stobla, Untersuchungen zu Wahlen in der römischen Kaiserzeit (1967). A. E. Astin, Latomus, 1969, 863 ff., argues that nominare had no technical meaning in electoral contexts in the early Principate. See also E. S. Staveley, Greek and Roman Voting and Elections (1972), especially 217 ff. [p. 190]

  26 DESTINATIO. The introduction of this procedure was revealed by the Tabula Hebana, the now famous inscription found in 1947 at Heba (Magliano) in Etruria. For the text see Ehrenberg and Jones, Documents2 (1955), n. 94 a. There is already an immense modern literature on it; one of the most important contributions is G. Tibiletti, Principi e magistri repubblicani (1953). For the view expressed in the text see Jones, JRS, 1955, 13 ff. who dates the introduction of destinatio to A.D. 5; E. T. Salmon would date it to 5 B.C. (Historia, 1956, 475), and Tibiletti, less probably, to 27 B.C. The new inscription is a rogatio in honour of Germanicus in A.D. 19–20, when five new voting-centuries were established in his honour. It refers to ten earlier centuries named after Gaius and Lucius Caesar which ‘destinated’ consuls and praetors, and to a Lex Valeria Cornelia (A.D. 5) which regulated the voting procedure. See also J. Béranger, Museum Helveticum, 1957, 216 ff., and for a full bibliography (1947–57) G. Tibiletti, Dizionario epigrafico di antichità romana s.v. Lex, IV, pp. 743 ff. P. A. Brunt (see last note) believes that the purpose of the Lex Valeria Cornelia was to enhance the dignity of the upper classes rather than their political power. On destinatio and nominatio in the early Principate see D. Flach, Chiron, 1976, 193 ff. [p. 191]

  27 PROCURATORS. Under Augustus and Tiberius the equestrian governors of imperial provinces were praefecti, but under Claudius the title was displaced by that of procurator. Cf. A. N. Sherwin-White, Papers Brit. Sch. Rome, 1939, 11 ff. and A. H. M. Jones, Studies, ch. vii. See H. G. Pflaum, Les procurateurs equestres sous le haut empire (1950) and below ch. XII, n. 20, and ch. XVI, n. 18. [p. 191]

  28 LOWER CIVIL SERVANTS AND CAESAR’S HOUSEHOLD. For the former see A. H. M. Jones, JRS, 1949, 38 ff., for the latter P. R. C. Weaver, Familia Caesaris (1972) and G. Boulvart, Esclaves et affranchis impériaux sous le haut-empire romaine (1970) and Domestique et fonctionnaire sous le haut empire romaine (1974). [p. 192]

  29 THE PLEBS. For the relationship between the city plebs and the Julio-Claudian emperors (as well as their role in the late Republic), see Z. Yavetz, Plebs and Princeps (1969). [p. 192]

  30 BUILDINGS. See the works cited in ch. IX, n. 12. Augustus’ Palatine house, which had belonged to the orator Q. Hortensius, is usually identified with the remains known as the House of Livia. Recent excavations have revealed traces of an earlier house just across a narrow road by the House of Livia, which are probably remains of a house which the Senate decreed should be given to him out of public funds (Dio Cassius, xlix, 15, 5); it was probably ready by 28 B.C.: G. Carettoni and N. Degrassi, Rendi conti d. Pontif. Accad. xxix (1966–7), 55 ff. and 76 ff; A. G. McKay, Houses, Villas and Palaces in the Roman World (1975), 70 ff. Augustus’ Mausoleum was built in 28 B.C. K. Kraft, Historia, 1967, 189 ff., argues that it was finished then and begun c. 32 when it will have been Octavian’s propaganda answer to Antony’s desire to be buried in Alexandria. On the actual work involved in running a household like that of Livia see S. Treggiari, Papers Brit. Sch. Rome, 1975, 48 ff. [p. 193]

  31 THE VIGILES. See P. K. Baillie-Reynolds, The Vigiles of Imperial Rome (1926). [p. 194]

  32 PRAEFECTUS URBI. On this office see G. Vitucci, Ricerche sulla Praefectura Urbi in Età imperiale (1956), and cf. T. J. Cadoux, JRS, 1959, 152 ff. [p. 194]

  33 SOCIAL LEGISLATION. For details see H. Last, CAH, X, 441 ff. Cf. G. Williams, JRS, 1962, 28 ff. For an anlysis of the Augustan marriage laws see P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower, 225 BC–A.D. 14 (1971), 558 ff. He concludes that this legislation had little effect in increasing the number of citizens, though it may have done much to change the behaviour of the classes whom it touched. [p. 195]

  34 FREEDMEN. A. M. Duff, Freedmen in the Early Roman Empire (1928); S. Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic (1969). [p. 196]

  35 LARES COMPITALES. G. Niebling, Historia, 1956, 303 ff., dates the institution of an official state cult of the Lares and Genius Augusti to 7 B.C. [p. 198]

  36 EMPEROR WORSHIP. In general see L. Cerfaux and J. Tondriau, Le Culte des Souverains (1956). See L. R. Taylor, The Divinity of the Roman Emperor (1931). On the formula devised by Augustus for tactfully declining divine honours, see M. P. Charlesworth, Papers Brit. Sch. Rome, 1939, i ff. See also K. Latte, Römische Religionsgeschichte (1960), ch. xi, and for the general background of thought, J. R. Fears, Princeps a diis electus: the divine election of the Emperor as a political concept at Rome (1977), together with P. A. Brunt’s discussion in JRS, 1979, 168 ff. [p. 198]

  37 AUGUSTAN LITERATURE. See the general books mentioned in ch. X, n. 3. Recent monographs include L. P. Wilkinson, Horace and his Lyric Poetry (2nd edn., 1951); Ovid Recalled (1955); R. Syme, History in Ovid (1978); E. Fraenkel, Horace (1957); cf. also the attractive sketches by G. Highet, Poets in a Landscape (1957), chs. ii–vi, and some reflections on Ovid by W. S. Maguinness (Gr. and R., 1958, 2 ff.). Two books of collected essays are Horace, edited by C. D. N. Costa (1974) and Ovid, edited by J. W. Binns (1973). On the Augustan poets see T. E. Wright, Fifty Years Cl. Sch. (1954), 306 ff. On Livy see A. H. McDonald, JRS, 1957, 155 ff.; P. G. Walsh, Livy: his Historical Aims and Methods (1961) and Livy (Greece and Rome, New Surveys, no. 8, 1974); also Livy (edited by T. A. Dorey, 1971). See also C. G. Starr, Civilization and the Caesars (1954); G. Williams, ‘Poetry in the moral climate of Rome’, JRS, 1962, 28 ff. Unlike Williams, J. Griffin in ‘Augustan Poetry and the Life of Luxury’, JRS, 1976, 87 ff., argues that the poets reflect the luxury of contemporary social life rather than mere literary conventions about such life. [p. 199]

  38 TIBILLUS, PROPERTIUS AND CORNELIUS GALLUS. See F. Cairns, Tibullus, a Hellenistic Poet at Rome (1979); M Hubbard, Propertius (1974); J. P. Sullivan, Propertius a Critical Introduction (1976). Another poet was C. Cornelius Gallus, a friend of Virgil and Augustus who appointed him as the first Prefect of Egypt (see above pp. 178, 212). Only one line of his love-elegies survived until 1978 when a Latin papyrus was found at Qasr Ibrim in Egyptian Nubia, preserving four complete and six fragmentary lines by Gallus. These contain references to his mistress Lycoris and to Cae
sar and a campaign (more probably Julius and his projected Parthian campaign than Octavian and the wars of 31–30). See R. D. Anderson et al., JRS, 1979, 125 ff. [p. 203]

  39 ASINIUS POLLIO. On his relationship to Augustus see A. B. Bosworth, Historia, 1972, 441 ff. [p. 204]

  CHAPTER XII

  1 THE PRAETORIAN GUARD. See M. Durry, Les Cohortes prétoriennes (1938); A. Passerini, Le coorti pretorie (1939). [p. 206]

  2 THE LEGIONS. See H. M. D. Parker, The Roman Legions2 (1958). On the organization of the army in general see G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army (1969). On army service from the point of view of the ordinary soldier, see G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (1969). On the impact of the army upon the behaviour and destiny of the government see M. Grant, The Army of the Caesars (1974). [p. 206]

  3 THE AUXILIA. See G. L. Cheesman, The Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army (1914). [p. 207]

  4 THE NAVY. See C. G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy2 (1960); D. Kienast, Untersuchungen zu den Kriegsflotten der romischen Kaiserzeit (1966). [p. 208]

  5 FORUM IULI. A fleet remained there until A.D. 69, but the base was gradually being replaced by Misenum. Excavation has revealed harbour-walls and many naval buildings, including the prefect’s mansion. See A. Donnadieu, Fréjus (1935). [p. 208]

  6 THE PROVINCES. See Th. Mommsen, The Provinces of the Roman Empire (1909); V. Chapot, The Roman World (1928); M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (2nd ed. 1957); H. D. Meyer, Die Aussenpolitik des Augustus und die Augusteische Dichtung (1961). In a discussion of this last named book P. A. Brunt (JRS, 1963, 170 ff.) advances the unconventional thesis that after a period of rest and pacification after the civil wars, Augustus embarked on a cautious but deliberate plan for world conquest, which was thwarted by the revolts in Pannonia and Germany in A.D. 6 and 9; only at the end of his life did he fall back on the policy of keeping the empire within its then existing boundaries. Whatever be thought of this view, at least it should be remembered that in fact Augustus added vast areas to the empire: the giver of peace was also a great conqueror. Cf. Brunt and Moore, Res Gestae (1967), 69. See also, in line with Brunt’s views, C. M. Wells, The German Policy of Augustus (1972), ch. 1, and further, the first part of E. N. Luttwak’s The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire from the first century A.D. to the third (1976), together with discussion by J. C. Mann, JRS, 1979, 175 ff.

  On the individual provinces under the Empire see the very detailed studies in Aufstieg, II, iii–ix (1975–8). [p. 208]

  7 THE EASTERN PROVINCES. See A. H. M. Jones, Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces2 (1971); D. Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor (1950). On the Augustan governors of Asia see K. M. T. Atkinson, Historia, 1958, 300 ff. On the kings beyond, see M. Pani, Roma e i re d’Oriente da Augusto a Tiberio (1972), i.e. Cappadocia, Armenia, Media, Atropatene. [p. 209]

  8 P. SULPICIUS QUIRINIUS. This novus homo, who was consul in 12 B.C., was legate of Syria in a.d. 6. He is the ‘Cyrenius’ mentioned by St. Luke, ii, 2. His career presents well-known difficulties. He was almost certainly not legate of Syria twice and may not have been the subject of a fragmentary inscription (ILS, 918) which has often been applied to him. As legate of Syria in A.D. 6 he supervised the assessment of Judaea after the deposition of Archelaus (see p. 211). See, briefly, R. Syme, OCD, s.v. On the census see E. Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, revised by C. Vermes and F. Millar (1973), 399 ff. [p. 209]

  9 PARTHIA. N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia (1938); K. H. Ziegler, Die Beziehungen zwischen Rom und dem Partherreich (1964), M. A. R. Colledge, The Parthians (1967). On Roman policy to Parthia, 30–20 B.C., see D. Timpe, Würzburger Jahrb. für die Altertumswiss. 1975, 155 ff. [p. 209]

  10 HEROD THE GREAT. See A. Momigliano, CAH, X, ch. xi; A. H. M. Jones, The Herods of Judaea (1938); M. Grant, Herod the Great (1971). The theory that Herod died in 1 B.C., not in 4 B.C. (with the consequent possibility of the birth of Jesus in 1 B.C. rather than in or before 4 B.C.: cf. J. Thorley, Gr. and R., 1981, 81 ff.) has been revived by W. E. Filmer (Journ. Theolog. Stud., 1966, 283 ff.) but refuted by T. D. Barnes, id., 1968, 204 ff. (cf. Schürer, op. cit. infra, I, 328). On Herod’s son Antipas see H. W. Hoehner, Herod Antipas (1972) which is not entirely satisfactory (cf. J. Rajak, JRS, 1974, 225).

  On Jewish history in this period in general see especially E. Schürer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, revised by G. Vermes and F. Millar, i (1973), ii (1976). Cf. also E. M. Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian (1976) and M. Grant, The Jews in the Roman World (1973). [p. 210]

  11 ARABIA FELIX. On the date (26–25) and purpose (conquest) of the Arabian expedition of Aelius see S. Jameson, JRS, 1968, 71 ff. On the site of Mariba see R. LeB. Bowen and F. P. Albright, Archaeological Discoveries in South Arabia, II (USA 1958). For an account of an American archaeological expedition there see W. Phillips, Qatoban and Sheba (1955). N. Lewis argues that a papyrus fragment (P. Oxy. 2820) refers probably to Aelius Gallus’ preparations in 25 B.C. for the expedition to Arabia Felix rather than to Cornelius Gallus. [p. 211]

  12 EGYPT. See H. Idris Bell, CAH, x, ch. x. On the Prefects see P. A. Brunt, JRS, 1975, 124 ff. [p. 212]

  13 ETHIOPIA. For Petronius’ expedition see S. Jameson, JRS, 1968, 71 ff., who argues that Augustus’ real intention was conquest; if so, he will have failed (as also in regard to an Elbe frontier). In general see P. L. Shinnie, Meroe (1967). [p. 213]

  14 SPANISH WARS. See R. Syme, AJP, 1934, 293 ff.; W. Schmitthenner, Historia, 1962, 29 ff.; A. Brancati, Augusto e la guerra di Spagna (1963). For the sources A. Schulten, Fontes Hispaniae Antiquae, V (1940), pp. 183 ff. Also A. Schulten, Los Cantabros y Astures (1943). On Augustus’ reorganization there see C. H. V. Sutherland, The Romans in Spain (1939), ch. vii. For romanization, J. M. Blazquez, Emerita, 1962, 71 ff. On the Roman conquest and later military occupation of N.W. Spain, where the mines as well as the population needed continued supervision, see R. F. Jones, JRS, 1976, 45 ff. [p. 213]

  15 GAUL. cf. N. J. de Witt, Urbanization and the Franchise in Roman Gaul (1940); J. J. Hatt, Histoire de la Gaule romaine (1959); A. J. Christopherson, Historia, 1968, 351 ff., on the provincial assembly of the Three Gauls in the Julio–Claudian period. [p. 214]

  16 TROPAEA AUGUSTI. For the text of this inscription see Ehrenberg and Jones, Documents, n. 40. [p. 215]

  16a NORICUM. On the conquest and history of Noricum see G. Alfoldy, Noricum (1974). [p. 215]

  17 THE BALKANS. The status of the cities in the new province varied. Sparta was ruled by Eurycles, who had fought for Octavian at Actium; he was rewarded with the emperor’s friendship, but he stirred up so much factional strife and disturbance in Achaea that he was banished (probably between 7 and 2 B.C.); his son Laco, however, was allowed to become ruler of Sparta. On Eurycles see G. W. Bowersock, JRS, 1961, 112 ff. On the Augustan conquest of Dalmatia see J. J. Wilkes, Dalmatia (1969), ch. 5. On the conquest and history of Pannonia and Moesia see A. Mocsy, Pannonia and Upper Moesia (1974). [p. 216]

  17a GERMANY. C. M. Wells, The German Policy of Augustus (1972), 211 ff., argues that the Romans established a base for two legions and auxiliaries at Oberaden (near the Lippe, N.E. of Dortmund) in 10 B.C. and held it for two years. [p. 218]

  18 THE CLADES VARIANA. The site of the disaster, possibly between Osnabruck and Detmold, has been the subject of endless discussion: for some of the earlier views, before 1931, see Rice Holmes, Architect Rom. Emp. ii, 166 ff. Further advance has been made in a pamphlet by W. John, Die Ortlichkeit der Varusschlacht bei Tacitus (1950), who argues that when Tacitus (Ann. I. 61) says that Germanicus, on reaching the site, found that the last stand had been made ‘in medio campi’, he means not ‘in the middle of the battle-field’, but on the ‘parade-ground’ within the camp: that is, the last survivors dug themselves in within a smaller area, when the ramparts of their camp had been stormed. This clue, combined with air-photography, might one day lead to a solution. Cf. W. John also in Paul
y-Wissowa, RE, xxiv (1963), col. 922 ff. [p. 219]

  19 GERMANY. On Drusus’ campaign in 9 B.C., see D. Timpe, Rhein. Mus., 1967, 289 ff., and on Germany under Augustus in general, id., Saeculum, 1967, 278 ff. On the archaeological evidence for the Roman frontier in Germany see H. Schonberger, JRS, 1969, 144 ff., who starts a valuable survey with the period from 19 B.C. to A.D. 16, examining the early development of the legionary fortresses and of other forts which mark the early advances beyond the Rhine. The camp buildings were made of wood, and stone was not used before the reign of Claudius, but it was a powerful defence line. See now on the northern frontier C. M. Welles, The German Policy of Augustus: an Examination of the Archaeological Evidence (1972). On aspects of Augustus’ German policy see also K. Christ, Chiron, 1977, 149 ff. [p. 219]

  20 PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS. On the personnel see R. Syramkiewicz, Les Gouverneurs de province à l’époque augustéenne: contribution à l’histoire administrative et sociale du principat, 2 vols. (1976). On the equestrian procurators see H. G. Pflaum, Les procurateurs equestres sous le haut empire romain (1950); Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres, 3 vols. (1960–61). [p. 220]

  21 PORTORIA. See S. J. de Laet, Portorium (1949). [p. 220]

  22 MINES. Much interesting light is thrown on the operation of mines under Hadrian by two inscriptions from the mining community at Vipasca in Lusitania: see Riccobono, FIRA, i, nos. 104–5; translation in Lewis and Reinhold, Rn. Civ. ii, 188 ff. [p. 220]