Suspicion Nation

by Bloom, Lisa

  91News4Jax, “Report: Volusia County Beach Officer Suspended Over Trayvon Martin Comments,” July 20, 2013, www.news4jax.com/news/report-volusia-county-beach-officer-suspended-over-trayvon-martin-comments/-/475880/21082116/-/15bxwvsz/-/index.html.

  92TMZ, “George Zimmerman Shops for Tactical Shotgun,” August 22, 2013, www.tmz.com/2013/08/22/george-zimmerman-shotgun-kel-tec-trayvon-martin-shop-gun/.

  93Seni Tienabeso, “George Zimmerman’s Wife Says He is ‘Selfish,’ Feels ‘Invincible,’” ABC News, September 6, 2013, http://abcnews.go.com/US/george-zimmermans-wife-selfish-feels-invincible/story?id=20174763.

  94MSNBC, “Zimmerman Accused of Domestic Violence, Fighting With a Police Officer,” March 27, 2012, http://usnews.nbcnews.eom/_news/2012/03/27/10894561-Zimmerman-accused-of-domestic-violence-fighting-with-a-police-officer.

  95Jonathan Capehart, “George Zimmerman’s Relevant Past,” Washington Post, May 28, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-partisan/wp/2013/05/28/george-zimmermans-relevant-past/.

  96S.A. Miller, “Zimmerman Plans to Go Back to Carrying the Same Gun That Killed Trayvon Martin,” New York Post, July 15, 2013, http://nypost.com/2013/07/15/zimmerman-plans-to-go-back-to-carrying-the-same-gun-that-killed-trayvon-martin/.

  97Richard LaPiere, “Attitudes vs. Actions” Social Forces 13, no. 2 (1934): 230-237, http://sf.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/2/230.full.pdf+html?ijkey=b6c55c0b2a1250b3a887a8cf7beeed9ecf5b81ef&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha.

  98People v. Hall (1854) 4 Cal. 399, 404.

  99Stephen Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).

  100LaPiere, “Attitudes vs. Actions.”

  101Charles M. Blow, “50 Years Later,” New York Times, August 23, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/08/24/opinion/blow-50-years-later.html?hp&_r=0.

  102Pew Research, “King’s Dreams Remain an Elusive Goal; Many Americans See Racial Disparities,” August 22, 2013, www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/08/22/kings-dreamremains-an-elusive-goal-many-americans-see-racialdisparities/3/.

  103Tufts Now, “Whites Believe They Are Victims of Racism More Often Than Blacks,” May 23, 2011, http://now.tufts.edu/news-releases/whites-believe-they-are-victimsracism-more-o.

  104Associated Press, “Racial Attitudes Survey,” October 29, 2012, http://surveys.ap.org/data%5CGfK%5CAP_Racial_Attitudes_Topline_09182012.pdf.

  105For this study, Hispanics are counted as either white or African-American, depending on how they self-identify.

  106If you are ready to bring your own hidden biases to light, try the test yourself at https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/. Prepare to get depressed.

  107Dexter Mullins, “Six Decades After Brown Ruling, U.S. Schools Still Segregated,” Aljazeera America, September 25, 2013, http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/9/25/56-years-after-littlerockusschoolssegregatedbyraceandclass.html.

  108Hazel Trice Edney, “New ‘Doll Test’ Produces Ugly Results,” Final Call, September 14, 2006, www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/National_News_2/New_doll_test_produces_ugly_results_2919.shtml.

  109Eric Wilson, “Fashion’s Blind Spot,” New York Times, August 7, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/08/08/fashion/fashions-blind-spot.html.

  110Christine Rudder, “How Your Race Affects the Messages You Get,” OkTrends, October 5, 2009, http://blog.okcupid.com/index.php/your-race-affects-whether-people-write-you-back/.

  111Angela Stanley, “Black, Female and Single,” New York Times, December 10, 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/12/11/opinion/sunday/black-and-female-the-marriage-question.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

  112Rudder, “How Your Race Affects the Messages.”

  113Duncan BL, “Differential Social Perception and Attribution of Intergroup Violence: Testing the Lower Limits of Stereotyping of Blacks,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34, no. 4 (1976): 590-598, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/993976.

  114Sally Kohn, “The Great Debate,” Reuters, March 21, 2012, http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate/2012/03/21/trayvon-martin-obama-and-the-persistence-of-bias/.

  115Science Daily, “‘Mere Presence’ of a Black Face Can Lead People to Mistake Objects for Weapons More Often, Study Says,” May 21, 2011, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/05/010521072157.htm.

  116Lydialyle Gibson, “Shooter’s Choice,” University of Chicago Magazine 99, no. 6 (2007), http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0778/investigations/shooters_choice.shtml.

  117Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow (New York: The New Press, 2012), 264.

  118Pew Research, “50 Years After the March on Washington, Many Racial Divides Remain,” August 22, 2013, www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/08/22/50-years-after-the-march-on-washington-many-racial-divides-remain/raceinamerica_05a/.

  119Gary Langer and Peyton M. Craighill, “Fewer Call Racism a Major Problem Though Discrimination Remains,” ABC News, January 18, 2009, http://abcnews.go.com/PollingUnit/Politics/story?id=6674407.

  120CBS News, “Judge Defends Denied Interracial Marriage,” October 19, 2009, www.cbsnews.com/2100-500202_l62-5396242.html.

  121Simon Mainwaring, “What Corporate America Can Learn from Martin Luther King Jr.,” Forbes, October 20, 2011, www.forbes.com/sites/simonmainwaring/2011/10/20/what-corporate-america-can-learn-from-martin-luther-king-jr/2/.

  122Alexia Elejalde-Ruiz, “Interracial Marriage: Mixing in Matching,” Chicago Tribune, July 11, 2012, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-11/features/sc-fam-0710-dating-mixed-20120710_l_interracial-marriage-whites-blacks.

  123John R. Logan, “Separate and Unequal: The Neighborhood Gap for Blacks, Hispanics and Asians in Metropolitan America,” (US2010 Project report, Brown University, 2011), www.s4.brown.edu/us2010/Data/Report/report0727.pdf.

  124Adom Cooper, “The Shocking Reason Why More Black People Are Unemployed,” PolicyMic, September 11, 2013, www.policymic.com/articles/62665/the-shockingreason-why-more-black-people-are-unemployed.

  125Drew Desilver, “Black Incomes Are Up, but Wealth Isn’t,” Pew Research, August 30, 2013, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/08/30/black-incomes-are-up-but-wealth-isnt/.

  126Janell Ross, “‘Insidious and Persistent’ Residential Segregation Called Out in Study,” Huffington Post, August 3, 2011, www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/02/study-race-plays-bigger-r_n_916391.html.

  127Martin Luther King, Jr. “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” April 16, 1963, www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html.

  128Kevin McCorry, “Robbing Peter to Pay Paul: ‘Leveling’ Philly Schools in the Time of Budget Crisis,” News Works, October 9, 2013, www.newsworks.org/index.php/local/the-latest/60708-robbing-peter-to-pay-paul-leveling-philly-schools-in-the-time-of-budget-crisis.

  129Valerie Strauss, “Philadelphia Passes ‘Doomsday’ School Budget,” Washington Post, June 1, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/06/01/philadelphia-passes-doomsday-school-budget/.

  130Valerie Strauss, “Girl Dies After Getting Sick at School Without Nurse,” Washington Post, October 12, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/10/12/girl-dies-after-getting-sick-at-school-without-nurse.

  131Marian Wright Edelman, “America’s Public Schools: Still Unequal and Unjust,” Huffington Post, April 6, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/marian-wright-edelman/public-schools-minority-students_b_1408878.html.

  132Ary Spatig-Amerikaner, “Unequal Education: Federal Loophole Enables Lower Spending on Students of Color,” (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, 2012), www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/UnequalEduation.pdf.

  133Center for American Progress, “Students of Color Still Receiving Unequal Education,” August 22, 2012, www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/news/2012/08/22/32862/students-of-color-still-receiving-unequal-education/.

  134American Civil Liberties Union, “Back to School Without Books: Many CA Students Still Lack Textbooks, ACLU Charges,” September 12, 2000, https://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/back-school-without-books-many-ca-students-still-lack-textbooks-aclu-charge
s.

  135Yoav Gonen, “Book Rack and Ruin at City Schools,” New York Post, May 14, 2012, http://nypost.com/2012/05/14/book-rack-ruin-at-city-schools/.

  136Ugonna Okpalaoka, “Report: Only 52 Percent of Black Males Graduate from High School in 4 Years,” Grio, September 20, 2012, http://thegrio.com/2012/09/20/report-only-52-percent-of-black-males-graduate-from-high-school-in-4-years/.

  137Schott Foundation for Public Education, “The Schott 50 State Report on Public Education and Black Males,” (Cambridge, MA, 2012), www.schottfoundation.org/urgency-of-now.pdf.

  138Sabrina Canfield, “Another School Suspends a Student for Criticizing a Teacher on Facebook,” Courthouse News Service, October 25, 2011, www.courthousenews.com/2011/10/25/40892.htm.

  139Johanna Miller and others, “Education Interrupted: The Growing Use of Suspensions in New York City’s Public Schools,” (New York: New York Civil Liberties Union, January 2011), www.nyclu.org/files/publications/Suspension_Report_FINAL_noSpreads.pdf.

  140Brett M. Kelman, “Study: Black Students Suspended More Often Than Others,” USA TODAY, May 12, 2013, www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/05/12/black-student-suspensions/2151423/.

  141Daniel J. Losen and Tia Elena Martinez, “Out of School and Off Track: The Overuse of Suspensions in American Middle and High Schools,” (Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the Civil Rights Project, 2013).

  142Dr. Michael M. Krop Senior High School, “Student Handbook,” (Miami, Florida, 2013), http://kropseniorhigh.org/ourpages/auto/2013/8/12/36073645/krophandbook2013.pdf.

  143Frances Robles, “Multiple Suspensions Paint Complicated Portrait of Trayvon Martin,” Miami Herald, March 26, 2012, www.miamiherald.com/2012/03/26/2714778_p2/thousands-expected-at-trayvon.html.

  144Lizette Alvarez, “Defense in Trayvon Martin Case Raises Questions About the Victim’s Character,” New York Times, May 23, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/05/24/us/zimmermans-lawyers-release-text-messages-of-trayvon-martin.html.

  145Claudio Sanchez, “A High School Dropout’s Midlife Hardships,” NPR, July 28, 2011, www.npr.org/2011/07/28/138741367/a-high-school-dropouts-mid-life-hardships.

  146Ibid.

  147United States Department of Education, “Impact of Inadequate School Facilities on Student Learning,” April 3, 2000, http://www2.ed.gov/offices/OESE/archives/inits/construction/impact2.html.

  148Pew Research, “50 Years After the March on Washington.”

  149Darren Wheelock, “A Jury of One’s ‘Peers’: The Racial Impact of Felon Jury Exclusion in Georgia,” Justice System Journal 32, no. 3 (2011), www.ncsc.org/Publications/JusticeSystem-Journal/~/media/Files/PDF/Publications/JusticeSystemJournal/JuryofOnesPeers.ashx.

  150Brian C. Kalt, “The Exclusion of Felons from Jury Service,” American University Law Review 53, no. 1 (2003), http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=aulr.

  151Keith Herbert, “Blacks Are Unusual in Prosecutor Positions,” Philly.com, August 29, 2005, http://articles.philly.com/2005-08-29/news/25424078_1_national-black-prosecutors-association-african-american-prosecutors-black-representation.

  152ABA Journal, “Race and Gender of Judges Make Enormous Differences in Rulings, Studies Find,” February 6, 2010, www.abajournal.com/news/article/race_gender_ofjudges_make_enormous_differences_in_rulings_studies_find_aba.

  153The Sentencing Project, “Reducing Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System: A Manual for Practitioners and Policymakers,” (Washington, DC, 2008), www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/rd_reducingracialdisparity.pdf.

  154Hayley Roberts, “Implicit Bias and Social Justice,” Open Society Foundations, December 18, 2011, www.opensocietyfoundations.org/voices/implicit-bias-and-social-justice.

  155Jamie Fellner, “Race, Drugs, and Law Enforcement in the United States,” Stanford Law and Policy Review 20, no. 2 (2009), www.hrw.org/news/2009/06/19/race-drugs-and-law-enforcement-united-states.

  156Maia Szalavitz, “Study: Whites More Likely to Abuse Drugs Than Blacks,” Time, November 7, 2011, http://healthland.time.com/2011/11/07/study-whites-more-likely-to-abuse-drugs-than-blacks/.

  157www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbS2ItoqKew.

  158David C. Baldus, Charles Pulaski, and George Woodworth, “Comparative Review of Death Sciences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 74, no. 3 (Autumn 1983), http://www2.law.columbia.edu/fagan/courses/law_socialscience/documents/Spring_2006/Class16-Capital Punishment/Baldus_Study.pdf.

  159Keith Kamisugi, “Share Your Unconscious Bias Stories With Us,” Equal Justice Society, December 11, 2009, www.equaljusticesociety.org/2009/12/11/share-your-unconscious-bias-stories-with-us/.

  160Harvard University Press Blog, “Whites Commit Crimes, but Blacks Are Criminals,” January 5, 2010, http://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publicity/2010/01/whitescommit-crimes-but-black-males-are-criminals.html.

  161Kelly Welch, “Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 23, no. 3 (2007), www.sagepub.com/gabbidonstudy/articles/Welch.pdf.

  162Welch, “Black Criminal Stereotypes.”

  163Perry L. Moriearty, “Framing Justice: Media, Bias, and Legal Decisionmaking,” Maryland Law Review 69, no. 4 (2012), http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3435&context=mlr.

  164Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).

  165Robert A. Gibson, “The Negro Holocaust: Lynching and Race Riots in the United States, 1880-1950,” (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale–New Haven Teachers Institute, 2013), www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1979/2/79.02.04.x.html.

  166Kahlil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 2010).

  167Richard Cohen, “Racism Vs. Reality,” Washington Post, July 15, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/richard-cohen-racism-vs-reality/2013/07/15/4f419eb6-ed7a-11e2-a1f9-ea873b7e0424_story.html?hpid=z2.

  168Jeffrey Goldberg, “The Color of Suspicion,” New York Times Magazine, June 20, 1999, www.nytimes.com/1999/06/20/magazine/the-color-of-suspicion.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.

  169Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Uniform Crime Report 2011: Arrests,” October 29, 2012, www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2011/crime-in-the-u.s.-2011/tables/table-43.

  170Justice Policy Institute, “Crime, Correctional Populations and Drug Arrests Down in 2011: As States Reform Justice and Save Money, Crime Continues to Decrease,” (Washington, DC, 2012), www.justicepolicy.org/uploads/justicepolicy/documents/fbi_ucr2011jpifactsheet.pdf.

  171Dylan Matthews, “The Black/White Marijuana Arrest Gap, in Nine Charts,” Washington Post, June 4, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/06/04/the-blackwhite-marijuanaarrest-gap-in-nine-charts/.

  172Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 103.

  173Ian Urbina, “Blacks Are Singled Out for Marijuana Arrests, Federal Data Suggests,” New York Times, June 3, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/06/04/us/marijuanaarrests-four-times-as-likely-for-blacks.html.

  174Drug Policy Alliance, “10 Facts About Marijuana,” www.drugpolicy.org/drug-facts/10-facts-about-marijuana.

  175Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1967), www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/392/1.

  176As this book went to press, the case was on appeal to the federal appellate court, which stayed the remedies ordered by the lower court judge pending its full review. Judge Sheindlin was removed from the case based on the appellate court’s concern that she had an “appearance of impropriety,” as she had appeared to encourage the filing of the cases and facilitated their assignment to her, and she had agreed to media interviews while the cases before her were pending.

  177Aviva Shen, “White People Stopped by New York Police Are More Likely to Have Guns or Drugs Than Minorities,” Think Progress, May 22, 2013, http://thinkprogress.org/justice/2013/05/22/2046451/white-people-stopped-by-new-york-police-are-more-likely-to-have-guns-or-drugs-than-minorities/.

&nb
sp; 178Shen, “White People Stopped by New York Police.”

  179Paul von Zielbauer, “Study Shows More Job Offers for Ex-Convicts Who Are White,” New York Times, June 17, 2005, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EEDB133EF934A25755C0A9639C8B63.

  180L.A. Johnson, “Studies Find that Afrocentric Names Often Incur a Bias,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 25, 2003, http://old.post-gazette.com/lifestyle/20031125blacknames1125fnp2.asp.

  181Jahvaris Fulton, tweet, July 13, 2013, https://twitter.com/jahvaris_martin.

  182Tom Foreman, “Analysis: The Race Factor in George Zimmerman’s Trial,” CNN, July 15, 2013, www.cnn.com/2013/07/14/justice/zimmerman-race-factor/.

  183Van Jones, “ARE Blacks a Criminal Race? Surprising Statistics,” Huffington Post, October 5, 2005, www.huffingtonpost.com/van-jones/are-blacks-a-criminalrac_b_8398.html.

  184Jamelle Bouie, “The Trayvon Martin Killing and the Myth of Black-on-Black Crime,” Daily Beast, July 15, 2013, www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/07/15/the-trayvon-martin-killing-and-the-myth-of-black-on-black-crime.html.

  185Hatty Lee and Shani O. Hilton, “Fife Myths About Crime in Black America—and the Statistical Truths,” Color Lines, April 13, 2012, http://colorlines.com/archives/2012/04/crime_myths.html.

  186Welch, “Black Criminal Stereotypes and Racial Profiling.”

  187United States Census Bureau, “State and County Quick Facts,” June 27, 2013, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html.

  188Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Uniform Crime Report 2011: Murder,” October 29, 2012, www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2011/crime-in-the-u.s.-2011/tables/expanded-homicide-data-table-6.

  189DiscovertheOdds.com, “What Are the Odds of Being Struck by Lightning?” October 8, 2012, http://discovertheodds.com/what-are-theodds-of-being-struck-by-lightning/.

  190Ruth D. Peterson and Lauren J. Krivo, “National Neighborhood Crime Study (NNCS), 2000. ICPSR 27501-v1,” (Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, 2010), www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/RCMD/studies/27501.