The Modern Middle East - A Political History Since World War I (Third Edition)
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Israeli-Occupied Territories, 116, 122–28, 138, 186, 193, 309–42, 406; closure of, 323, 331; depopulation of Palestinians in, 317–21, 450n36; economic development, 310–11, 317, 321–23, 332; expropriation of Palestinian land, 311, 318, 332, 337; facts on the ground, 319–21, 345; house demolitions, 79–80, 123, 198, 317–19, 321, 418n35, 453–54nn60,64; Israeli violence, 135–36, 313, 318, 334–39; Jews in, 126, 128, 313, 317–22, 320table, 322fig, 331–33, 338fig, 402, 453–54nn55,64; living conditions, 307, 312–13, 317–18, 321–24, 451n50; as occupation, 316; oil workers from, 360; Palestinian attitude change, 135–36; Palestinian refugee camps, 308, 309, 310, 316, 317, 450n37; preferential treatment of Jews, 313, 317–22, 453–54nn55,64; repopulation of Jews, 317, 319–21, 320table; road map for peace and, 336–37; Sharon “Disengagement Plan,” 338–39; water, 117, 319, 334, 402, 403. See also Gaza Strip; Golan Heights; Palestinians; settlements; West Bank
Israeli political parties, 245; Arab Israeli, 245–46; IDF influence, 247; Labor Party, 303, 305–6, 327, 331; Mapai, 75–76, 119; Rafi, 119; Shas, 304, 305–6. See also Likud (Unity) Party
Istanbul: air pollution, 397; Kasimpasha, 365; Ottoman Empire, 11, 22, 37, 47; Sykes-Picot Agreement, 40; Young Turks, 28, 411n61
Italy: colonialism, 50, 99; fascism, 50; Sykes-Picot Agreement exclusion, 41
Jabari, Ahmed, 341
Jaffa, Partition Plan, 80
janissaries, Ottoman, 23, 24
Jerusalem: Barak and, 331, 333; bombing of the King David Hotel, 80; British capture, 28; Camp David II and, 332–33, 344; Crusaders, 21; Islamic expansion into, 17; Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem, 123, 318–19, 333; Jordan’s section, 84; Oslo Accords on, 329; Palestinian land expropriated, 318; Partition Plan, 80; repopulation of Jews, 320; Sadat trip, 133, 326; Saladin, 21; Six-Day War and, 119, 123; suicide bombings, 454n74; Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, 333–35; Wailing Wall, 319, 333
Jesuits, French, 38
Jewish Agency, 75, 84
The Jewish State (Herzl), 74–75
Jews, 73–84; Ashkenazim, 302–7; Balfour Declaration and, 42–43; diaspora, 74, 299, 387; ethnic origin, 2, 73–84, 241, 302–6; haskala, 74, 417n14; Medina, 16; Mizrachim, 303–6; in Occupied Territories, 126, 128, 313, 317–22, 320table, 322fig, 331–33, 338fig, 402, 453–54nn55,64; Orthodox, 303, 306; Palestine, 42, 44, 70, 73–84; as religious identity, 2, 10, 301–12; Sephardim, 302–3; U.S., 42, 197–98, 303. See also European Jews; Israel; Judaism; Zionists
jihad, 39, 260, 315, 441–42n114
Jordan, 3; Arab-Israeli wars, 84, 117–21, 126, 132; associations, 285; balancing act, 190; Black September civil war (1970), 230; “bread riots” (1980s), 191, 230; economic development, 229, 283, 352, 357, 361, 364; independence, 50, 235, 412n14; Iraqi refugees after U.S. invasion, 206; Jordan-Israel peace treaty (1994), 191, 403; loyal opposition, 250, 283; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 327; national charter, 281; nationalist symbols, 236; oil workers from, 360, 369; Palestine partitionings and, 46, 81map, 84; and Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 123–26, 129, 136, 230, 326, 346; Palestinians in, 107, 288, 309; parliament, 237, 251, 273, 283, 412n14; political parties, 251–53, 259, 283; Sadat break with, 129; and Sadat initiative, 455n83; Second Gulf War, 186, 191; statism, 352; Transjordan name change to, 41, 412n14; urban populations, 12, 408n14; and West Bank, 126, 136, 235, 326, 455n87; and Yemeni civil war, 116. See also Jordan’s monarchy; Transjordan
Jordan River: water source, 402–4. See also West Bank
Jordan’s Hashemite ruling family, 42, 46, 230, 283, 412n9, 439n78; Abdullah II (Hussein’s son), 236–39; Arab nationalism, 71; demonstrators calling for fall of, 5–6; Hassan, 236, 239; legitimacy, 42, 229–31; sherifian, 39, 230; Transjordan’s Abdullah, 42, 46, 71, 84, 412n14. See also Hussein (Jordan king)
Jordan’s monarchy, 42, 46, 229–30; civic myth, 215, 231, 238, 263; cultural legitimation, 279; and democracy, 282–83; economic involvement, 352; liberalization, 215, 282–83; political opposition, 251–53, 258, 259, 282, 283; rentierism, 229–30, 236, 362; state formation, 215, 229–30, 232; sultanistic state, 214, 215, 229–31, 238–39, 283. See also Jordan’s Hashemite ruling family
Judaism, 246, 302–7, 448n7. See also Jews
judicial system: Egyptian independence in, 218; Iran, 59; Israel, 245; Turkey’s Swiss Civil Code, 54. See also jurisprudence, Islamic
jurisprudence, Islamic, 16; ijma, 16; qiyas, 16; sharia, 16, 54, 59, 60, 260, 389, 415n66; Sunna, 16; ulama power eroded, 256
Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi—AKP), Turkey, 244, 259
Justice and Welfare Party (Adl wal-Ihsan), Morocco, 260, 280
Karroubi, Mehdi, 166
Kemalism, 53–54, 71–72, 242–45, 279, 413n37. See also Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal
Kenya, U.S. targets attacked in (1998), 195, 200
Keynesianism, precocious, 362
al-Khalifa monarchy, 272; Sheikh Hamad, 238; Sheikh Isa ibn-Sulman, 238
Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali, 167–68
Kharajis (secessionists), Islam, 18, 237
Khatami, Hojjatoleslam Muhammad, 164–68
Khomeini, Ayatollah Rouhollah, 141, 147, 152–65, 154fig, 166, 167; death (1989), 167, 168, 224, 288; inclusionary state, 223–24, 227; and Iran-Iraq War, 141, 155, 156, 159–63, 173, 176, 178, 181; reign of terror, 155, 156, 161–63, 168, 176; velayat faqih/Leader, 158, 161, 168, 426n22
Khorramshahr, Iran-Iraq War, 178, 179
King, Stephen, 268
Kinross, Lord, 55, 410n60
Kiriyenko, Sergei, 168fig
Kissinger, Henry, 132, 133, 157
kleptocracies, 215
Klieman, Aharon, 346
Knesset, Israel, 126, 245, 305, 326, 332, 334, 440n91
Korea, North, 201
Kosovo, Battle of (1389), 22
Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK), 244–45
Kurds, 2; Iran, 2, 143, 176; Iraq, 2, 51, 180, 188, 208, 431nn41,42; Saladin, 21; Sunni, 29; Turkey, 2, 50, 52, 53, 58, 242, 244–45, 263; violence toward, 3, 188, 244–45
Kuwait: exclusionary state, 217; foreign workers, 362, 369, 392; Iran-Iraq War, 181–82, 393; Iraqi annexation of, 182–83, 188; Iraq invasion/Second Gulf War, 172–73, 182–90, 208, 229, 282, 327; loyal opposition, 250; oil, 184, 186, 352; parliament, 233, 234, 250, 273; political parties, 251; rentierism, 361, 362; al-Sabah family, 182, 233, 234; sultanistic state, 214, 229, 233, 234
labor organizations: Israel/Zionist, 75–76, 79, 303; ruling bargain, 265–66; unions in opposition politics, 253. See also employment
Labor Party, Israel, 303, 305–6, 327, 331
Lahoud, Emile, 288
The Lancet, 206
land: Israeli expropriations of Palestinian land, 311, 318, 332, 337; oil monarchies’ real estate market, 234; for peace, 125, 132, 326, 331; reform laws, 94–95, 146–47, 151, 180, 369. See also agriculture; geography; housing; settlements, Israeli
languages: Arabic, 1, 3, 54, 106, 122; French colonial, 3; Hebrew, 303; Islamic divisions, 18; Islamic penetration of multiple, 2; Ottoman, 54; print capitalism, 69; Turkey, 54
Lapidus, Ira, 30
Latin America: authoritarianism, 217, 273, 281, 296; democratization, 265, 281, 296; economics, 265; Mercado Comun del Sur (MERCOSUR), 377; military, 230; parallel or alternative society, 279; population data, 388, 393; rentierism, 363; revolution, 140. See also Cuba; Nicaragua
Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), 28
Lawrence, T.E., 40, 412n11
leaders: Algeria, 100, 114, 219–21, 282; Arab cultural, 87; beylik, 7, 99, 104, 105; charismatic, 93–97, 101, 114, 215, 224–27, 254; exclusionary, 215–21, 223–27; Irani Leader/velayat faqih, 158–68, 224, 426n22; Israel, 43, 73–78, 117–19, 128–35, 193, 247, 324–38; military control during uprisings (2011), 294–95; patrimonial, 65, 276–77; presidential monarchies, 268–71, 387; public display of portraits, 220, 224, 227, 269, 437–38n36; Tunisia, 39, 100, 105–6, 114, 116–17, 215–21, 253, 282; uymaqs, 29, 30. See also clerics; dictatorships; local notables; military coups; m
onarchies; personal politics; political elites; political parties; ruling families; shahs; individual leaders
League of Arab States. See Arab League
League of Nations, 44, 46, 51
Lebanon, 1, 3, 40, 51; Arab-Israeli wars, 84; civil war (1975–91), 13, 138, 240, 248–49, 288, 327; creation of, 39, 44; democratization, 215, 240, 241, 248, 262, 280, 285–90; economic development, 348, 352, 361, 377; Eisenhower Doctrine, 111; France and, 38, 44, 50, 248; Hawi, 257; Hezbollah, 249, 260, 289; independence (1943), 240, 247–48; Israeli invasion, 133–34, 186, 249, 289, 327, 334; Israeli withdrawal, 327, 331, 403; local notables (zuʿama), 247, 250, 288; National Pact/al-Mithaq al-Watani (1943), 248, 288; oil workers from, 360; Palestinians in, 107, 248, 288, 309, 334; PLO, 125, 311; quasi-democratic state, 215, 240–42, 247–50, 263; religions, 38, 44, 247, 248, 249, 288, 334; Shiʿites, 247, 248, 249, 274; Syria and, 248–49, 288–89; Taʾif Accord (1972), 248–49, 288–89; water, 400, 401
legislatures. See parliaments
legitimacy, state: after Arab Spring, 298; cultural, 279; democratization and, 274, 276, 279, 290; Iraq, 175–76; Islamic fundamentalists and, 260; monarchies, 42, 101–2, 215, 229–38, 439n61; nationalist, 274–76; opposition parties and, 251, 290; “patron state,” 277–78; PLO, 136, 308, 449n28; redefining, 298; repression and, 279; ruling bargain and, 274–76, 279. See also central authority
Levant, 1; Christians, 10, 37, 38, 44, 247–49, 288, 334; French colonialism, 3, 37, 38, 65, 79–80. See also Lebanon; Syria
Levy, David, 306
Lewis, Bernard, 54, 70, 411n61
liberalization: from above, 460n50; economic, 219, 261, 271–72, 350–51, 357–65; inclusionary states, 227, 228; political, 215, 219, 234–35, 244–45, 262, 280–90, 358, 372–73; repression mixed with, 268, 281; sultanistic states, 215, 227, 231, 234–35. See also democracy
Liberation Rally, Egypt, 95, 113
Libya, 1, 190, 382; Arab Spring and revolution (2011), 5, 217, 267, 275, 291, 294–95; British-French administration, 99; conspiracy theories about, 274; constitutions, 5; coup (1969), 218, 226; inclusionary state, 214, 215, 223–28, 367–68; Islamic expansion into, 17; Italians in, 50, 99; monarchy, 116; nationalism, 73, 99–100, 274; oil-based rentierism, 359; Ottomans, 23, 47, 50; Pan-Arabism, 7, 72; patrimonialism, 276; Revolutionary Committees, 368; and Sadat initiative, 455n83; statism, 351; Turkey and, 244; Waddan, 12; youth population, 266. See also Qaddafi, Muammar
life expectancy, 388–89
Likud (Unity) Party, 135; IDF influence, 247; and Jewish settlements, 319–20; Mizrachim and, 305–6; Netanyahu, 204, 330–31; peace process adrift, 341–42; and Sadat peace proposal, 326; Sharon, 334, 336; U.S. conservatives and, 204
literature: Arab nationalist, 87, 90, 122; Iranian Third Republic, 165; poetry, 1, 56, 257, 414n56; after Six-Day War, 122, 126. See also intellectuals
Lloyd George, David, 43
loans: British and Russian to Iran, 31; European to Ottomans, 38; international bank, 243, 283, 356, 361; oil, 63, 360–61. See also aid; foreign capital
local nation builders (1920s), 38, 51–67, 69, 70, 142. See also Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal; Bourguiba, Habib; Mohammed V; Pahlavi, Reza Shah
local notables: Iran’s aʿyan, 31; Lebanon’s zuʿama, 247, 250, 288; Palestinian aʿyan, 310. See also local nation builders; political elites
local popular committees, Palestinian, 311
London Times: Arab house demolitions, 418n35; Saddam’s cult of personality, 177
Luciani, Giacomo, 136–37
Lurs tribe, Iran, 57
Lynch, Marc, 298
Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 326, 327
Maghreb: Berbers, 2, 48, 101; colons, 48–50, 99, 101, 102–3, 108; defined, 1; French in, 3, 38, 47–50, 49fig, 65, 98–107, 116, 218, 237; independence in, 38, 47–50, 98–107, 218, 237; languages, 3; nationalism, 73, 96–107, 116; Ottomans, 23, 47–49, 106. See also Algeria; Libya; Morocco; Tunisia
Mahdi, 29
Mahfouz, Naguib (1911–2006), 126, 257
Mahmud II (r. 1808–39), 24
Majles (Iranian parliament), 31–32, 145, 286; First Republic, 156, 159–62, 224; Karroubi, 166; Khamenei, 167; “questioning the president” (2012), 167; Reza Khan and, 56–59, 142–45; Second Republic, 162–63; Third Republic, 164–65
majlis, 233, 237, 273, 284. See also Majles (Iranian parliament)
Makhlouf, Rami, 270
makhzen, 283, 445n82
Makiya, Kanan, 189
Malaysia, Islamism, 258
Mamluks, 21
mandatory protectorates, 13, 39, 44–47, 45map, 50, 51, 67; Iraq, 44, 50, 56; Maghreb, 48, 50, 65, 237; Palestine, 44, 46, 50, 51, 79–80, 85, 86–87, 86table. See also colonialism
Maoists, Iranian Fedayeen-e Khalq, 151
Mapai Party, Israel, 75–76, 119
Maronites, 38, 44, 247–49
marriages: age of, 389; divorce rights for women, 256; Jewish ethnic groups, 252–53, 304; multiple, 14, 105
martyrdom, 208; Iran-Iraq War, 179; Palestinian, 315, 335. See also suicide bombings
Marv, Iran, 11, 21
massacres: Algerian civil war (1990s), 368; of Armenians, 27, 410n60; Deir Yassin Palestinians, 82–83, 419n43; Hama (Syria), 223; of Kurds, 188, 431n42
mawali, 19, 409n35
McMahon, Sir Henry/Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, 37, 39, 40
Mecca, 2, 11–18, 255, 333; caliphate, 20; controversy over three pagan goddesses, 407n2; Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, 39, 40; Saud clan, 62–63
media: exclusionary state, 217; official nationalism and, 274. See also arts; Internet; newspapers; radio; technology; television
Medina, 11, 12, 15–17, 50, 255, 333; caliphate/political center, 12, 18, 20, 62; Compact of, 15–16; established, 15; Saud clan, 63
Mehmet II the Conqueror (Fatih), 22
Meir, Golda, 77, 128, 129, 135
Mendès-France, Pierre, 103
MEROSUR (Mercado Comun del Sur), 377
Meshaal, Khaled, 343fig
Mesopotamia: cities, 11, 38, 408n7. See also Iraq
Mez, Adam, 19
middle class: economic liberalization, 261; exclusionary states, 221; exit from politics, 279–80; and informal sector, 365, 368; Iran, 32, 141, 150, 151, 162, 287; Iraq, 174; Islamists and, 261–62; Mizrachim, 306; Morocco, 287; Nasser, 93; opposition parties, 251, 260, 280; Palestinian, 307–8, 310; quasi-democratic state, 240, 241; rentier economies and, 360; ruling bargain and, 265–66, 279; semiformal sector and, 370; state bourgeoisie, 349; sultanistic states, 215, 231; unofficial nationalism, 274–75
Middle East, 2–5, 9–209; anti-Americanism, 186, 196–99, 207–8; challenges, 387–406; defined, 1; four defining periods (contemporary), 35; issues, 5, 211–406; Mizrachim from, 303–4; modern era’s beginning, 3–4, 36; unifying characteristics, 1–3; “veritable kingdom of the old,” 265. See also Arabian peninsula; colonialism; conflicts; cultural values; economic development; ethnicity; Iran; Iraq; Israel; Levant; North Africa; Palestinians; politics; population; religions; states; Turkey
Middle East and North Africa Economic Conference, Qatar, 193
migration: and corporatization of labor, 277; day laborers and farmworkers from Israeli-Occupied Territories, 311; European Jewry to Palestine/Israel (aliya), 73–77, 76table, 85, 88, 300, 301, 303, 304–5; foreign workers in oil, 355, 360, 362, 369, 393, 394table, 416n83; Italians to Libya, 50; Jews to Israel (1990–2007), 303; to Mecca, 15; Middle Eastern and African Jewry to Palestine, 303–4; nomadic, 11–12; and popular militia, 368; rural to urban, 255, 353, 365, 366, 368, 396, 408n14; Zionists to U.S., 76. See also refugees
military, 213; in Afghanistan conflicts, 195, 199–200; Algeria, 220–22, 270–71, 368, 369; Arab nationalism post-1948 and, 90; Arab uprisings (2011), 221, 292–95; cabinet members in, 220, 224; corporatism and, 277; Cossack brigade, 55; and democratization, 240–44, 262; depoliticization, 243, 244–45; exclusionary states, 218–22; Hezbollah militia, 249; informal economic sector, 368; Iran, 58–59, 146, 153, 1
61–62, 166–67, 175, 178, 180, 224–26, 368; Iran-Contra Affair, 161, 428n57; Israel-Iran deals, 161; Jordan, 46, 231, 237; Lebanon, 248, 249; Morocco, 102, 237–38; navies, 36, 37, 180, 181, 196; Ottoman, 23, 24; Palestinian, 82; Palestinian Fedayeen commandos, 96, 117, 123, 124–25, 126, 138; Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA), 84, 124; quasi-democratic states, 240, 241–47, 263; security state demilitarization, 270; sultanistic states, 230, 232; Syria, 109, 111, 113, 117, 129, 221, 289; Tunisia, 292; Turkey, 53, 240–44, 247, 263, 283, 348; Turkey-Israel alliances, 194; U.S. hostage crisis, 159; U.S. invasion of Iraq, 203–7; U.S.-Iran deals, 146, 161; U.S. Middle East and Central Asia presence, 198, 201, 203; U.S. war on terrorism, 195; Yemen, 114; Zionist, 75–76, 79–80, 79fig, 82–83, 88. See also Egyptian military; Free Officers; Iraqi military; Israeli Defense Forces (IDF); military coups; wars; weapons of mass destruction
military coups: Algeria (1965), 116; Algeria (1991), 282; Egypt (1952), 92–93, 97, 218, 351; Iran (1921), 32–33, 56, 57; Iraq (1958), 42, 110, 113–14, 174, 218; Morocco attempted (1971/1972), 230, 237–38; silent, 240, 243, 283–84; Sudan (1985), 357; Syria, 111, 113–14; Turkey, 240, 242–44, 283–84; Yemen, 114–15
military democracy, 242
Mitchell, George, 335
Mizrachim, 303–6
mizug galuyot, 306
Moaz Esther, unauthorized outpost, 300fig
modernism, 3–4, 36, 218, 387; Arab nationalism post-1948 and, 90; Iran, 56–62, 66, 142, 147, 152, 156, 235; and Islam, 54, 66, 156, 255–57; Nasser, 218; Ottoman, 25–27; statist, 51, 53–55, 134, 348, 349–56; sultanistic states, 235; Tunisia, 105; Turkey, 51, 53–56, 66, 242. See also economic development; industrialization; secularism; West
Mohammad, Mohathir, 258
monarchies, 62, 90, 95, 387; absolutist, 145–49; civic myth, 215, 231, 234, 238, 263; colonial constructions, 3, 215, 232; corporatism, 230, 233–34, 277; democratic, 237; Egypt, 90–93; Hijaz, 40, 42, 50, 51, 62–66, 71; Iran, 10, 31–33, 57–59, 141–55; Iraq, 39, 40, 42, 71, 230; legitimacy, 42, 101–2, 215, 229–38, 439n61; Libya, 116; patronage, 233–38, 282, 283, 372; presidential, 268–71, 276, 387; rentier states, 229–30, 235, 359, 383, 385, 459–60n45; sherifian, 47, 101, 229; statism, 352; sultanistic states, 215, 229–38; Syria, 40, 44, 71; Yemen, 114–16. See also Jordan’s monarchy; Morocco’s monarchy; oil monarchies, Arabian peninsula; ruling families; shahs