Palestinians, 299; Arab-Israeli ethnicity, 2, 306, 309; Arab Revolt (1936–39) vs. British, 80, 85, 88–89, 302; Arab solidarity with, 90, 172; associations, 124, 285; civil society organizations, 308; Deir Yassin massacre, 82–83, 419n43; diaspora, 89, 309–10, 387; divisions among, 302, 307–8; education, 87, 450n39; Egypt and, 90, 96; Fedayeen, 96, 117, 123, 124–25, 126, 138; GDP, 323; Hezbollah and, 260; house demolitions, 79–80, 123, 198, 317–19, 321, 324, 418n35, 453–54nn60,64; insiders/street, 308, 328–33; institutions, 308, 313–15; international sympathy for, 198, 275; Islamic Jihad, 260, 313–15, 337, 345; Israeli depopulation of, 317–21, 450n36; in Israeli-Occupied Territories, 135–36, 260, 300, 302, 309–24, 329–30, 331, 337; Israelis denying existence of, 77–79, 84, 106, 300, 302, 307, 316–17, 329, 345; in Jordan, 107, 288, 309; in Lebanon, 107, 248, 288, 309, 334; local notables (aʿyan), 310; local popular committees, 311; national identity, 66, 85, 86table, 87, 316–17, 449n30; and Partition Plan, 80–82; peripheral in Israel, 304, 306; religions, 74, 302, 310, 314–16; riots (1929), 87; Six-Day War as watershed for, 123; strike (1936), 88; “transfer” of, 450n36; youth, 82, 123–24, 310, 311, 323, 335, 450n39. See also Hamas; Palestinian-Israeli conflict; Palestinian nationalism; Palestinian refugees
Pan-Arabism, 72–73, 89–90, 97–98, 107, 171–72, 190–94, 262; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 291; Egypt/Nasser, 72, 90, 97–98, 106–9, 113–14, 137–38, 172, 190–92; Syria, 7, 72, 108, 109, 113–14, 137. See also Arabism (Arab nationalism); Arab League
Pappe, Ilan, 83–84, 317
parliaments, 285; Egypt, 127, 269, 290; exclusionary states, 221; Israeli Knesset, 126, 245, 305, 326, 332, 334, 440n91; Jordan, 237, 251, 273, 283, 412n14; Kuwait, 233, 234, 250, 273; Lebanon, 288; Morocco, 238, 250, 273, 283, 286; Ottoman, 86–87; political opposition in, 251; presidential monarchies, 270, 276; Syria, 276; Turkey, 28, 53, 54, 244–45. See also elections; Majles (Iranian parliament); National Assembly
Party for Justice and Development (PJD), Morocco, 282–83
patriarchy, Palestinian, 312
patrimonialism, 65, 228, 273
patronage, 199, 254, 459n43; associations, 285; corporatist, 361; foreign, 260; monarchies, 233–38, 281–82, 372; Palestinian, 311; patrimonialism, 65, 228, 273; “patron states,” 277–78, 348–49; ruling bargain and, 291
pax Americana, 196, 199, 201
peace, democratic, 213
peace process, Arab-Israeli, 135, 323–46; Camp David Accord (1978), 125, 134, 197, 325–27, 333, 345, 455n83; Camp David II (2000), 331–34, 336–37, 344; Egypt-Israel, 109, 128, 132–34, 193, 325–27, 332–33, 424n69; IDF influence, 247; Israel’s New Middle East proposal, 193; Jordan-Israel peace treaty (1994), 191, 403; land for peace, 125, 331; Madrid Peace Conference (1991), 326, 327; Palestinian-Israeli, 6, 125, 191, 193, 211, 323–46; road map for peace, 336–37; Sinai I & II treaties, 133, 135; UN resolutions, 125, 132; U.S. and, 125, 133–34, 197, 204, 325–27, 331–34, 336–37, 342, 344. See also Oslo Accords; treaties
Peres, Shimon, 135, 193, 324–25, 327, 330, 337
Perle, Richard, 204
Persians, Iran, 2, 18, 20, 29, 175
personal politics, 66, 171, 266, 268–69; exclusionary states, 219–20, 228, 269, 437n36; inclusionary states, 223–27; oil monarchies, 232; opposition parties, 252–53; Pahlavi, 61, 142; patrimonial, 65, 228, 276–77; public display of portraits, 220, 224, 227, 269, 437–38n36; Saddam, 177, 223–27, 269, 276, 429n9. See also leaders; local notables; monarchies; patronage; political elites
petroleum era, 359–60. See also oil
Philippines, democratization, 281
Plan Dalet, 83–84
PLO. See Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
PNA. See Palestinian National Authority
poetry, 1, 56, 257, 414n56
Poland: democracy from above, 281; immigrants to Israel from, 303; new state, 70
police: economic development and, 385; Iran, 60, 145–46, 147, 150, 151, 152, 166–67; Iraqi female, 175fig; Palestinian, 330, 336; presidential monarchies, 269, 270, 271; security state, 270, 271; tribalism, 233. See also intelligence agencies; mukhaberat; repression, state
political elites: Abbasid, 20; during Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 291–95; and democracy, 239–48, 268–69, 280–90; globalization and, 382; hard-liners and soft-liners/liberalizers, 289, 297; Ilkhanid, 22; image, 149–50, 283; Iran, 167–68; Iraq, 174, 179; Islamist, 156–63, 243–44, 257–58, 261, 262; Lebanese zuʿama, 247, 250, 288; Mecca, 15, 17; nationalism and, 69–70, 91, 192; and national security, 213; opposition parties and, 252–53; “Oriental despots,” 283; Palestinian counterelite, 307–11, 313, 315–16; Palestinian traditional, 310–11; rentierism, 359; Saljuq, 22; Umayyad, 19. See also authoritarianism; caliphates; central authority; dictatorships; intellectuals; leaders; local notables; military coups; parliaments; personal politics; political parties; ruling bargain; ruling families
political Islam. See Islamism
political opposition, 250–64, 273; clandestine/informal, 250, 253; by clerics, 152–66, 255–58, 262–64; exclusionary states, 217, 222; intellectuals, 151–52, 255, 257, 262–63, 273, 286; Iran, 59, 141–68, 251, 254–57, 285–86; Jordan, 249, 251–53, 259, 282, 283; loyal, 54, 221, 238, 250, 283; middle class, 251, 260, 280; Morocco, 238, 251, 253, 260, 282, 283, 286–87; newspapers, 253, 285, 286; officially recognized/formal, 250; political parties, 150–61, 217, 221–22, 230, 238, 250–64, 280, 290, 296; radicalization of, 253–64; repression vs., 59, 149, 155–68, 175, 211, 250–56, 261, 263, 273, 286–87, 296; secular vs. religious, 250, 257, 263; sultanistic states and, 215, 230, 238, 249; Tunisia, 217, 251–53, 258–59, 291, 292, 296. See also Arab Spring and uprisings (2011); coups; Islamism; rebellion; revolutions; street demonstrations
political parties: Bahrain, 272; change through, 285; exclusionary states, 219, 221; Iran, 58, 148–61, 251, 399; Islamist, 251, 258–60, 262–64, 282–83; Jordan, 251–53, 259, 283; Kurdish, 244–45; Morocco, 19, 101, 102, 237, 238, 251–53, 260, 280, 283; multipartyism, 242, 282–83; national liberation, 69; opposition, 150–61, 217, 221–22, 230, 238, 250–64, 280, 290, 296; ruling bargain and, 265–66; state (sole official party), 251, 285; Syria, 109, 112–13, 116, 173, 219, 222, 228, 251, 260, 280; Tunisia, 100, 104–5, 107, 218, 219, 222, 251–52, 258–59, 271, 282; Turkey, 53–55, 242–45, 252–53, 259, 260, 283–84. See also Algerian political parties; Baʿth party; Egyptian political parties; Israeli political parties
politics, 4, 6, 7; community type, 11; economic actors and, 363, 372, 373; Egyptian chaotic, 91; exclusionary state, 215; exit of society from, 279–80; fascism, 50, 51, 76, 91, 301, 302, 330; globalization and, 374–77; Israeli-Occupied Territories, 321; leading to uprisings (2011), 372–73; liberalization, 215, 219, 234–35, 244–45, 262, 280–90, 358, 372–73; Mecca and Medina, 17; Mizrachim and Ashkenazim, 303, 304, 305; religion emerging in, 10–11; rentierism and, 460n54; “street,” 123, 157, 331, 332–33. See also central authority; confederations; conflicts; domestic politics; international allies; Islamism; nationalism; personal politics; political elites; political opposition; populism; states; treaties
pollution, environmental, 388, 396–401
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), 124
Popular Militia/Popular Army, Iraq, 174, 226, 368
population, 388–96, 390–91table; by age, 393, 395table; Arab Israelis, 246; Arab refugees from Six-Day War, 121; Arab Revolt (1936–39), 88; Arafat’s bodyguards, 330; Egyptian forces in Yemen, 115; Egypt’s economy and, 348, 355; fertility rates, 389, 392table, 394–96, 425n3; and geography, 12–13, 33; Germans in Iran, 415n74; Greeks sent from Turkey to Greece, 53; infant mortality rates, 388–89; Iran, 425n3; Iran-Iraq War forces, 178; Iran-Iraq War POWs, 181; Iraqi Baʿthists, 226; Iraqi military, 178, 226; Iraqi refugees after U.S. invasion, 206; Israel’s religions, 303; Italian colonialism and, 48, 50, 99; Jews in Israel, 303; Jews in Occupied Territories, 319–20, 320table, 331–33; Jews in Palestine (1800s–1900s), 74, 76–77, 76table, 80–82; Leban
ese religions, 247; life expectancy, 388–89; Maghrebi colons, 99; Muslims in Afghanistan-Soviet conflict, 199; Palestine (1800s–1900s), 74, 77, 80–82; Palestinian depopulations in Occupied Territories, 317–21; Palestinian house demolitions, 79–80, 317–19, 418n35, 453n60; Palestinian Israeli, 309; Palestinian police, 330; Palestinian poverty, 322–23; Palestinian refugees, 83, 88, 89table, 106–7, 236, 309, 317, 419n45; Saud clan, 233–34; security state apparatus, 271; urban concentrations, 12–13, 33, 396, 397; U.S. and British troops in Iraq, 204; water scarcity and, 400–401, 403; youth, 266, 393; Zionist (1890s), 75; Zionist immigrants to Palestine (late 1800s), 76–77; Zionist military, 82. See also casualties
populism: authoritarian, 219, 223; Egypt, 91–98, 110, 113; inclusionary states, 214, 215, 218; Iran, 161, 166, 178, 223, 224; Iraq, 214, 223, 226; Islamist, 255, 259, 262; Israeli Shas Party, 305–6; Palestinian nationalism, 86table; “populist-corporatist,” 457n7; ruling bargain, 275–76; Tunisia and, 215, 217; Turkey, 244
postal system, Ottoman, 25
poverty, 387; Islamic fundamentalism and, 262; Israeli-Occupied Territories, 321–24; Lebanese Shiʿites, 248; punished by states, 368–69, 461–62n69
praetorian dictatorships, 214, 217–23, 278, 435n3
pragmatism: dual containment policy, 201; Hijaz nationalism, 417n9; Iranian Republic, 163; Middle East regimes, 272; Nasser, 113; Rabin, 328; Zionist, 82
prayer, Islamic, 2, 17
predatory regimes, 217
presidential monarchies, 268–71, 276, 387
print capitalism, 69, 87
prisons, Israeli, radicalizing effects of, 315
privatization, 261, 361
Progressive Republican Party, Turkey, 53
Prophet Muhammad, 2, 14–19, 408–9n17; born Muhammad ibn-Abdullah, 14; death (632), 10, 17; hijrah, 15, 409n21; sherifian rulers related to, 39, 47, 101, 230; wife Khadija, 14; Yathrib, 11, 15, 409n21. See also caliphates
protectorates, 65–66, 114. See also mandatory protectorates
protests. See rebellion; street demonstrations; strikes
public employment. See civil service/public employment
punishments, by state, 368–69, 461–62n69
Qaddafi, Muammar: and Arab nation, 172, 177, 192; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 291, 295, 295fig; brought down, 267, 387; inclusionary state, 215, 218, 223–28; Nasser and, 137–38, 192; patrimonialism, 276; revolution from above, 140; Third Way, 254
Qaddafi, Seif al-Islam, 276
Qadisiyya, Arab-Persian battle, 175, 227
Qajars, 27, 28, 30–33, 56–57
al-Qassam Brigade, 451n48
Qassem, Abd al-Karim, 173–74, 218
Qatar: foreign workers, 393; Lebanon mediation by, 249; Libyan activists supplied by, 296; Middle East and North Africa Economic Conference, 193; oil revenues, 352; and political opposition, 250; sultanistic state, 214, 215, 217, 233, 235; Syrian activists supplied by, 296
Qavam, Ahmad, 147
qiyas, 16
Quartet on the Middle East (US/UN/European Union/Russia), 343
quasi-democracies, 213–16, 239–50, 263
Quran, 14, 15, 16; Arabic language, 1; profession of faith with, 17; Sufism and, 411n63
Quraysh tribe, 14, 19, 412n9
Quwatli, Shukri, 112
Rabin, Yitzhak, 135, 324–25, 328–31, 329fig
racism, Aramco, 416n83
radio: Arab broadcasts to Palestinians, 83; corrupting innovation, 63; Egypt, 98, 113, 122, 123, 423n41; Israeli broadcasts to Palestinians, 317; Sudan, 222; Turkey, 243
Rafi Party, Israel, 119
Rafsenjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 162, 167, 224
railways: Baghdad, 37–38; Iran, 60; from Mediterranean to India through Iraq, 413n27; Ottoman, 25; Turkey, 54
rainfall, 400, 401. See also drought
Ramadan: Islamic fasting, 17, 105, 131; 1973 war, 129–33, 423n55; Prophet and, 16
The Ramadan War, 133
al-Rashid, Harun, 20
al-Rashid clan, 63
Rashidun (Rightly Guided Ones), 18. See also caliphates
Rastakhiz Party, Iran, 148, 251
RCD (Constitutional Democratic Rally), Tunisia, 271
Reagan, Ronald, 160–61, 184, 204
rebellion, 229, 265–98. See also Arab Spring and uprisings (2011); Islamism; revolutions; riots; street demonstrations; strikes
recession (1980s and 1990s), 261–62
red lines, 239, 331
Refah Party, Turkey, 243–44, 252, 259
refugees: Arabs in Six-Day War, 121; Iraqi after U.S. invasion, 206; Syrian civil war, 296. See also Palestinian refugees
rejectionism, Arab-Israeli conflict, 190; Palestinian-Israeli, 315, 325, 330, 345
religions, 10, 179, 263; Arab-Israeli, 245–48, 440n93; Druze, 47, 74, 245–48, 303, 440n93; Islam as more than, 2; Israel populations, 303; Jews/Judaism, 2, 10, 246, 301–12, 448n7; Lebanon, 38, 44, 247, 248, 249, 288, 334; Middle Eastern commonalities, 1, 2, 3; minorities (treatment of), 19, 27, 29, 44; monotheistic, 10, 15, 62–63; pagan, 10, 14, 15, 16; Palestinian, 74, 302, 310, 314–16; political emergence, 10–11; Turkish nationalism and, 27, 54; Zoroastrianism, 10. See also Christians; clerics; fundamentalism; Muslims; mysticism; secularism
rentierism, 63, 349, 358–63, 458n35, 459–60nn37,45,47,54; monarchies, 229–30, 235, 359, 362, 383, 385, 459–60nn37,45; oil and, 359–62, 383, 385, 459n37; unruly, 362–63, 384
repression, state, 211, 215, 265–98; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011), 291–92, 296, 298; censorship, 59, 273, 286; exclusionary states, 214, 217, 221–23, 263, 278; inclusionary states, 223–28, 263; Islamism and, 262, 268, 272; of Kurds, 2, 242, 244–45; Morocco, 238, 286–87; vs. political opposition, 59, 149, 155–68, 175, 211, 250–56, 261, 263, 273, 286–87, 296; quasi-democratic states, 242, 244–45; ruling bargain and, 212, 272–81; sultanistic states and, 232, 235, 238; vs. terrorism, 265. See also authoritarianism; human rights abuses; police; violence
republicanism: Egyptian, 92; exclusionary states, 222; French colonialism, 3; and patrimonialism, 276–77; Russian, 191; Tunisian, 104, 105; Turkey, 28, 50, 53–54, 56; Yemen, 114–16. See also elections; Iranian republicanism; parliaments
Republican People’s Party (RPP), Turkey, 53–54, 55
“republic of fear,” Saddam’s, 189–90, 206, 226
Revolutionary Command Council (RCC): Egypt, 92–95; exclusionary state, 218; Iraq, 174–75
revolutions, 107, 139, 170, 249; from above, 140, 242; Algerian, 100, 103–4, 116, 140; Arab Revolt vs. Ottomans (1916–18), 28, 35, 39–40, 62; Arab Revolt (Palestinians vs. British 1936–39), 80, 85, 88–89; coups distinct from, 140; Egypt (2011), 5, 217, 267, 275, 292–94, 386; European “Spring of Nations”/”Springtime of Peoples” (1848), 405; European Velvet Revolutions, 405; exclusionary states, 218; four ideal types, 140; French, 25, 140, 168; inclusionary states, 215, 223, 228; Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905–11), 31–33, 56, 61, 142–43, 284; Iranian White Revolution (Inqilab-e Sefeed)/Revolution of the Shah and the People (1963), 146–48, 152; Islam as, 15; Libya, 5, 217, 226, 267, 275, 294, 368; Nasser (1952), 42, 85, 91–93, 97, 102, 114, 115, 140; nationalism and, 274; negotiated, 140; Neolithic Revolution, 11; 1973 war and, 137; planned, 140; Russian (1917), 28, 41, 43; Six-Day War defeat and, 122; spontaneous, 140, 141, 151; Sudan’s October Revolution (1964), 218; sultanistic states, 230; theatrical, 139; Tunisia, 5, 107, 217, 267, 275, 294, 386; Turkey’s revolutionism, 51, 53, 54, 140, 242, 413n37; Yemen, 115, 294, 296. See also Arab Spring and uprisings (2011); Iranian revolution (1978–79)
Reza. See Pahlavi, Reza Shah
Rice, Condoleezza, 204
Richards, Alan, 349, 461n62
Rif War, 48
rights, 387–88; Arab Israeli, 246; Israeli and Palestinian right to exist, 77–79, 84, 106, 300, 302, 307, 316–17, 329, 345; mukhaberat states, 221; national security vs., 213; Palestinian refugee right of return, 329, 332–37, 344; quasi-democratic states, 239, 242; voting, 94fig, 147, 240, 245–46; women’s, 94fig, 147,
240, 256, 284, 387–88. See also human rights abuses
riots: cost-of-living, 356; Egyptian vs. British (1919), 46; Iranis vs. Pahlavi state, 147, 149, 150, 152–53; Jordan’s “bread riots” (1980s), 191, 230; Morocco, 230, 356; Palestinian vs. British (1929), 87. See also revolutions
rivers: cities along, 12, 17, 20; cradles of civilizations, 12, 33; water sources, 400–404. See also Jordan River
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 12, 62, 63, 200
road building, 59, 200, 320
Roman Empire, 10, 50
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 197
Rothschild, Lord, 42, 43
Rothschild family, 76
ruling bargain, 218, 268–98; and democracy, 273, 280–98; economic development, 211–12, 360, 365; four primary pillars, 273–74; state-imposed, 273, 290; unraveling, 272–81, 297–98
ruling families, 229–37; corporatism, 230, 233–34, 277; oil monarchies, 182, 186, 229–37, 372. See also al-Assad family; Jordan’s Hashemite ruling family; Morocco’s monarchy; Pahlavi state; Saud clan
Rumsfeld, Donald, 204
Rushdie, Salman, 159, 227
Russians: Armenians, 27, 53; Balfour Declaration and, 42–43; and British rule in India, 36; communist revolution (1917), 28, 41, 43; Cossack brigade, 55; and Iran, 31, 32, 55, 57, 61, 110, 142–43, 150, 168fig, 348; Jews, 42, 74, 303, 305; Ottomans and, 23–24, 27, 28; Quartet on the Middle East, 343; republic, 191; Sykes-Picot Agreement exclusion, 41; and U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003), 204. See also Soviets
Saadet party, Turkey, 259
al-Sabah family, 182, 233, 234; Sheikh Jaber, 182
Sadat, Anwar, 108–9, 127–34, 177; Arabs disassociating from, 109, 134, 189, 192, 193, 326, 327, 455n83; assassination (1981), 134, 228; Camp David Accord (1978), 134, 325–27, 455n83; constitution, 268–69; electric-shock diplomacy, 133; The Hero of the Crossing, 133, 134; infitah (open door policy), 134, 137, 219, 351, 372; and Islamism, 199, 228; Jerusalem trip, 133, 326; 1973 war, 108–9, 127–30, 130fig, 132–34, 326; peace process, 109, 133–34, 325–27, 424n69; portraits, 130fig, 437–38n36; shah of Iran and, 158; state types, 215, 219, 220, 228, 229; U.S. and, 133–34, 198, 325–27
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