Making of the Atomic Bomb

by Richard Rhodes

  1597. “a prerequisite . . . bomb”: Seaborg (1977), p. 75.

  1598. “because . . . use helium”: ibid., p. 91.

  1599. “a water . . . time”: Weart and Szilard (1978), p. 157.

  1600. “Compton repeated . . . of 1944”: Seaborg (1977), p. 86ff.

  1601. “Compton opened . . . people present”: ibid., p. 93ff.

  1602. “Stated in . . . lines”: Weart and Szilard (1978), p. 156.

  1603. “In 1939 . . . were eliminated”: ibid., p. 152.

  1604. “The UNH . . . a minimum”: Seaborg (1977), p. 148.

  1605. “facetiously . . . attention”: interview with Glenn Seaborg, Berkeley, Calif., June 22, 1982.

  1606. “Perhaps today . . . of man”: Seaborg (1977), p. 192ff.

  1607. “a holiday . . . hue”: ibid., p. 193.

  1608. “luminaries”: Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 227.

  1609. “I considered . . . practical way”: quoted in Bernstein (1980), p. 70.

  1610. “After the . . . effort”: quoted in ibid., p. 61.

  1611. “The essential . . . hands full”: Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 226.

  1612. Kiddygram: cf. ibid.

  1613. “our best . . . country”: quoted in Bernstein (1980), p. 55.

  1614. early July: on July 9, 1942, Teller told Seaborg he was leaving for a month in Berkeley. Seaborg (1977), p. 111.

  1615. “He had . . . probably work”: quoted in Bernstein (1980), p. 71.

  1616. “We were . . . do it”: Teller (1962), p. 38.

  1617. “We had . . . hydrogen bomb”: quoted in Bernstein (1980), p. 72ff.

  1618. “in the . . . been tragic”: “Remarks by Raymond T. Birge,” May 5, 1964, p. 5ff. JRO Papers, Box 248.

  1619. “The theory . . . do much”: interview with Hans Bethe, Ithaca, N.Y., Sept. 12, 1982.

  1620. “My wife . . . doing it”: quoted in Bernstein (1980), p. 73.

  1621. 35,000 eV/400 million degrees: Hawkins (1947), p. 14.

  1622. 85,000 tons: ibid., p. 15.

  1623. 500 atomic bombs: based on Bush’s March estimate of 2 KT per “unit.”

  1624. “I didn’t . . . know more”: Bethe interview, Sept. 12, 1982.

  1625. “I’ll never . . . their calculations”: Compton (1956), p. 127ff.

  1626. “I very . . . my arguments”: Bethe interview, Sept. 12, 1982.

  1627. “It was . . . common sense”: Hawkins (1947), p. 15.

  1628. “My theories . . . conclusion”: Teller (1962), p. 39.

  1629. “Konopinski . . . guess”: ibid.

  1630. lithium deuteride: cf. Teller to Oppenheimer, Sept. 5, 1942, JRO Papers, Box 71: “In connection with these reactions it occurred to me that our Lithium Deuterite estimate which we made at Berkeley might be wrong . . . But even so I agree that Lithium Hydride will probably not be possible without some change in isotopic composition.”

  1631. “We were . . . unforgettable”: Bethe (1968), p. 398.

  1632. a major effort: cf. Hawkins (1947), p. 2.

  1633. “Fast neutron . . . work”: Seaborg (1977), pp. 269-271.

  1634. Cincinnati/Tennessee: ibid.

  1635. Conant notes: handwritten on yellow legal pad paper, headed “August 26, 1942. Status of the Bomb.” Bush-Conant File, f. 14a.

  1636. Executive Committee report: “Status of Atomic Fission Project,” (n.d.), Bush-Conant File, f. 12.

  1637. “the physicists . . . report”: via Harvey Bundy. Cf. VB, “Memorandum for Mr. Bundy,” July 29, 1942. OSRD S-l Bush Report March 1942 #58.

  1638. “Classical engineers . . . everyone”: Libby (1979), p. 90ff.

  1639. Wilson’s meeting: Leona (Woods) Libby’s is the more detailed recollection and squares with the timing of the Stone & Webster appointment in June, following which the engineering firm conducted preliminary studies during the summer. Compton apparently confuses the meeting Wilson called with the June meeting Seaborg describes when the decision to turn Pu production over to industry was first announced—also a rowdy meeting. Cf. Libby (1979), p. 90ff; Compton (1956), p. 108ff; Seaborg (1977), p. 93ff.

  1640. “We (some . . . & Webster”: Libby (1979), p. 91.

  1641. “When Compton . . . and disbanded”: ibid., p. 91 ff.

  1642. Szilard memorandum: Weart and Szilard (1978), p. 153ff, and draft “Memorandum” dated Sept. 19, 1942, Szilard Papers.

  1643. “In talking . . . instrument”: LS, draft “Memorandum,” p. 5.

  1644. “I have . . . OSRD”: ibid., p. 4.

  1645. “The situation . . . our work”: Weart and Szilard (1978), p. 155.

  1646. “There is . . . be functional”: ibid., p. 156.

  1647. “If we . . . it up”: quoted in ibid., p. 147.

  1648. “We may . . . responsibility lies”: ibid., p. 159ff.

  1649. “From my . . . war efforts”: VB to Harvey Bundy, Aug. 29, 1942. OSRD S-l Bush Report March 1942 #58, p. 4.

  1650. “On the . . . Oh”: Groves (1948), p. 15.

  1651. “to take . . . project”: “Memorandum for the Chief of Engineers,” Sept. 17, 1942. MD I/I/f.25b.

  1652. “I thought . . . colonel”: Groves (1962), p. 5.

  1653. Groves’ father: cf. Groves (n.d.), “The Army As I Saw It.”

  1654. “Entering West . . . I knew”: ibid., p. 103.

  1655. “A . . . wolf”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 244.

  1656. “the biggest . . . of understanding”: quoted in Goodchild (1980), p. 56ff.

  1657. “I was . . . horrified”: Groves (1962), p. 19.

  1658. “I told . . . the soup”: quoted in ibid., p. 20.

  1659. “His reaction . . . his wishes”: ibid., p. 22.

  1660. “We had . . . a year”: ibid., p. 23.

  1661. “You made . . . start moving”: quoted in Groueff(1967), p. 15n. Groueff interviewed Groves at length.

  1662. k = 0.995: Hewlett and Anderson (1962), p. 70.

  1663. “I remember . . . beach”: L. Fermi (1954), p. 191.

  1664. “in frigid . . . promontory”: Libby (1979), p. 2.

  1665. “One evening . . . little kids”: ibid., p. 4.

  1666. “As he . . . he was”: ibid., p. 1.

  1667. “I was . . . we wanted”: R. Sachs (1984), p. 33.

  1668. “At each . . . ‘metallurgists’ ”: L. Fermi (1954), p. 176.

  1669. “one of . . . his wife”: Compton (1956), p. 207.

  1670. “close to 1.04”: Fermi (1962), p. 207.

  1671. “For the . . . questions asked”: Wilson (1975), p. 91.

  1672. 1 percent improvement in k: Fermi (1962), p. 212.

  1673. Zinn preparations: cf. FP 181 ibid.; Wattenberg (1982); Wilson (1975), p. 108ff.

  1674. “The War . . . build both”: Seaborg (177), p. 284ff.

  1675. “I left . . . be impossible”: Groves (1962), p. 41.

  1676. “Its reasons . . . design data”: ibid., p. 48.

  1677. “if we . . . casualties”: ibid., p. 49.

  1678. “dreadful decision”: Seaborg (1977), p. 343.

  1679. “We did . . . be intolerable”: Compton (1956), p. 137.

  1680. “most significant . . . fission occurs”: ibid., p. 136ff.

  1681. delayed neutrons: Roberts et al. (1939b).

  1682. “The only . . . myself”: Compton (1956), p. 138.

  1683. building CP-1: cf. Allardice and Trapnell (1955); Compton (1956), p. 132ff; FP 181, Fermi (1962); L. Fermi (1954), p. 176ff; Groueff (1967), p. 54ff; Libby (1979), p. 118ff and passim; R. Sachs (1984), pp. 32ff and 281ff; Seaborg (1977), p. 388ff; Segrè (1970), p. 120ff; Wigner (1967), p. 228ff; Wilson (1975), pp. 91ff and 108ff.

  1684. “Gus Knuth . . . on hand”: Wilson (1975), p. 92.

  1685. number of layers: 57 layers/17 days/2 shifts = 1.7 per shift.

  1686. “A simple . . . and myself”: Wilson (1975), p. 93.

  1687. “Each day . . . following shifts”: Fermi (1962), p. 268.

  1688. pile countdown: these numbers charted in ibid
., FP 181, p. 275.

  1689. “We tried . . . the business”: quoted in Wilson (1975), p. 94.

  1690. “That night . . . in place”: Fermi (1962), p. 269.

  1691. “I will . . . leisurely”: ibid., p. 270.

  1692. “The next . . . the batter”: Libby (1979), p. 120.

  1693. “Back we . . . received heat”: ibid.

  1694. “several of . . . the material”: Wattenberg (1982), p. 30.

  1695. “Fermi instructed . . . supposed to”: ibid., p. 31.

  1696. “Again the . . . control rod”: ibid.

  1697. “After the . . . and locked”: ibid.

  1698. “This time . . . level off”: quoted in ibid., p. 32.

  1699. “at first . . . about it”: Wilson (1975), p. 95.

  1700. Fermi told tech council: cf. Seaborg (1977), p. 394. Seaborg gives k = 1.006, presumably a typographical error; cf. FP 181, Fermi (1962), p. 276.

  1701. “Then everyone . . . ZIP in!”: Wilson (1975), p. 95.

  1702. “Nothing very . . . cannot foresee”: Wigner (1967), p. 240.

  1703. “We each . . . except Wigner”: Wattenberg (1982), p. 32.

  1704. “bursting . . . news”: Seaborg (1977), p. 390.

  1705. “in my . . . University”: Conant (1970), p. 290.

  1706. “Jim . . . and happy”: Compton (1956), p. 144.

  1707. “There was . . . of mankind”: Weart and Szilard (1978), p. 146.

  Chapter 14: Physics and Desert Country

  1708. “massive . . . work”: Bethe (1968), p. 396.

  1709. “[Oppenheimer] . . . choir boy”: Chevalier (1965), p. 11.

  1710. “He was . . . loved him”: Dorothy McKibben, quoted in Else (1980), p. 9.

  1711. “He was . . . unspoken wishes”: Chevalier (1965), p. 21.

  1712. “painful but . . . my voice”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 129.

  1713. “sometimes appeared . . . most sensitive”: Segrè (1970), p. 134.

  1714. “Robert could . . . like it”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 103.

  1715. “But it . . . or something”: Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 135.

  1716. “the loneliest . . . world”: quoted in ibid., p. 145.

  1717. “My friends . . . to change”: USAEC (1954), p. 8.

  1718. “I had . . . my students”: ibid.

  1719. “very grave . . . those days”: interview with Philip Morrison, Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 1982.

  1720. “And through . . . the community”: USAEC (1954), p. 8.

  1721. “In the . . . and country”: ibid.

  1722. “I never . . . to me”: ibid., p. 10.

  1723. “Dr. [Stewart] . . . it was”: ibid.

  1724. “I went . . . the world”: ibid., p. 9.

  1725. “created the . . . nuclear physics”: Bethe (1968), p. 396.

  1726. “He began . . . to try”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 79.

  1727. JRO meeting Groves: cf. LRG to JRO, Sept. 27, 1960. JRO Papers, Box 36.

  1728. “I became . . . no consideration”: USAEC (1954), p. 12.

  1729. “a military . . . as officers”: ibid.

  1730. “original . . . in Berkeley”: LLG to JRO, Sept. 27, 1960.

  1731. “the work . . . pace”: Groves (1962), p. 60.

  1732. “Outside the . . . Oppenheimer”: ibid., p. 62.

  1733. “It was . . . a theorist”: Bethe (1968), p. 399.

  1734. “snag . . . any means”: Groves (1962), p. 63.

  1735. “He’s a . . . about sports”: interview, March 8, 1946. Szilard Papers.

  1736. “After much . . . the task”: Groves (1962), p. 62ff.

  1737. “by default . . . bad name”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 159.

  1738. “it was . . . astonished”: Else (1980), p. 11.

  1739. October 15 and 19: cf. LLG to JRO, Sept. 27, 1960.

  1740. “For this . . . hands on”: Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 231.

  1741. Bethe, Segrè et al.: Kunetka (1982), p. 48.

  1742. “so that . . . conditions”: Groves (1962), p. 64.

  1743. Groves’ criteria: cf. Badash (1980), p. 3ff.

  1744. “a delightful . . . Utah”: ibid., p. 4.

  1745. “a lovely . . . satisfactory”: Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 236.

  1746. “considerable . . . usable site”: Badash (1980), p. 14ff.

  1747. “as though . . . directly there”: ibid., p. 5.

  1748. “The school . . . its stream”: Church (1960), p. 4.

  1749. “beautiful . . . country”: Segrè (1970), p. 135.

  1750. “hot and . . . or moisture”: L. Fermi (1954), p. 204.

  1751. “I remember . . . the place’ ”: Badash (1980), p. 15.

  1752. “My two . . . be combined”: quoted in Royal (1969), p. 49; cf. also Brode (1960), first page of Introduction. I merge these two versions of JRO’s statement; the sense is the same and the exact remark is variously attested.

  1753. “Nobody could . . . go crazy”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 163.

  1754. Corps of Engineers’ appraisal: MED 319.1.

  1755. “What we . . . accelerators”: Badash (1980), p. 30.

  1756. “The prospect . . . Los Alamos”: USAEC (1954), p. 12ff.

  1757. “Oppenheimer . . . radar”: Moyers (1984).

  1758. “the culmination . . . physics”: quoted by JRO in Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 250.

  1759. “To me . . . consequence”: ibid.

  1760. “Laboratory . . . our hi-jinks”: ibid., p. 243ff.

  1761. “Oppenheimer’s . . . a teletype”: Badash (1980), p. 10.

  1762. “a very . . . to come”: ET to JRO, March 6, 1943. JRO Papers, Box 71.

  1763. Teller’s prospectus: referred to in ET to JRO, Jan. 4, 1943 (misdated 1942). JRO Papers, Box 71.

  1764. “mental love . . . in conversation”: quoted in Coughlan (1963), p. 90.

  1765. “fundamentally . . . somewhat introverted”: quoted in Blumberg and Owens (1976), p. 77.

  1766. Alvarez disagrees: personal communication.

  1767. “scientific autonomy . . . our work”: Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 247ff.

  1768. “Several of . . . camps”: L. Fermi (1954), p. 201.

  1769. Vemork raid: cf. Haukelid (1954); Irving (1967); Jones (1967).

  1770. “one of . . . be repeated”: Jones (1967), p. 1422.

  1771. “Here lay . . . Europe”: Haukelid (1954), p. 71.

  1772. “one of . . . mountains”: ibid., p. 73.

  1773. “Halfway down . . . and rivers”: ibid., p. 92ff.

  1774. “It was . . . of sentries”: ibid., p. 94.

  1775. “We were . . . grenades”: ibid., p. 95.

  1776. “the thin . . . Europe”: ibid.

  1777. “but an . . . to do?”: ibid., p. 98.

  1778. “the best . . . seen”: quoted in Irving (1967), p. 149.

  1779. Japan: cf. Pacific War Research Society (1972). p. 27ff, and Shapley (1978).

  1780. “The study . . . field”: quoted in PWRS (1972), p. 26.

  1781. “The best . . . the meeting”: ibid., p. 35.

  1782. “This was . . . Engineers”: Badash (1980), p. 31.

  1783. “about thirty persons”: Segrè (1970), p. 135.

  1784. Los Alamos Primer: Condon (1943). Designated LA-1.

  1785. “The object . . . nuclear fission”: ibid., p. 1.

  1786. “Since only . . . active material”: ibid., p. 2.

  1787. 7 percent U235: Condon says at least tenfold; 1/140th × 10 = 7%. Condon (1943), p. 5.

  1788. “to make . . . possible”: ibid.

  1789. “the gadget”: ibid., p. 7.

  1790. “severe . . . effects”: ibid., p. 9.

  1791. “Since . . . is possible”: ibid., p. 10.

  1792. “The reaction . . . gadget”: ibid., p. 11.

  1793. “as the . . . [core]”: ibid., p. 13.

  1794. “An explosion . . . distance”: ibid., p. 16.

  1795. “When the . . . break”: ibid., p. 18.<
br />
  1796. “is . . . at present”: ibid., p. 21.

  1797. illustration: Condon’s drawing, ibid.

  1798. “The highest . . . 10 tons”: ibid.

  1799. “If explosive . . . sphere”: ibid., p. 22.

  1800. illustration: Condon’s drawing, ibid.

  1801. “All autocatalytic . . . needed”: ibid., p. 24.

  1802. “relatively . . . physics”: Hans Bethe OHI, AIP, p. 59.

  1803. “If there . . . ceremony”: Badash (1980), p. 31ff.

  1804. April conference plans: cf. Hawkins (1947), p. 16ff.

  1805. Neddermeyer’s thoughts: as reported to Davis (1968), p. 170ff.

  1806. “I remember . . . implosion”: quoted in ibid., p. 171.

  1807. “expands . . . sixteenfold”: Condon (1943), p. 15.

  1808. “At this . . . hand”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 171.

  1809. “The gun . . . better still”: quoted in ibid., p. 172.

  1810. “At a . . . of assembly”: Hawkins (1947), p. 23.

  1811. “Neddermeyer . . . and Bethe”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 173.

  1812. “Nobody . . . seriously”: Badash (1980). p. 34.

  1813. “This will . . . into”: quoted in Davis (1968), p. 173.

  1814. “After he . . . surprised”: quoted in ibid., p. 182.

  1815. Condon and The Tempest: cf. Smith and Weiner (1980), p. 252.

  1816. the bombing of Hamburg: cf. Kennett (1982), Middlebrook (1980), Overy (1980).

  1817. “But when . . . way through”: quoted in Jones (1966), p. 80ff.

  1818. “the targets . . . bombing”: quoted in Kennett (1982), p. 128.

  1819. “that although . . . night bombing”: Churchill (1950), p. 279.

  1820. Headlines proclaiming raids: for a discussion of this point cf. Hopkins (1966), p. 461ff.

  1821. “It has . . . workers”: quoted in Kennett (1982), p. 129.

  1822. “a bomber . . . endure”: quoted in ibid., p. 130.

  1823. “INFORMATION . . . HAMBURG”: quoted in Middlebrook (1980), p. 95.

  1824. Operation Gomorrah: I rely here on Middlebrook (1980).

  1825. “It was . . . night”: quoted in ibid., p. 253.

  1826. “Most of . . . them all”: quoted in ibid., p. 244.

  1827. “The burning . . . like again”: quoted in ibid.

  1828. “Then a . . . of fire”: quoted in ibid., p. 259.

  1829. “Mother wrapped . . . the doorway”: quoted in ibid., p. 264.

  1830. “We came . . . knees screaming”: quoted in ibid., p. 266ff.