“They gave it”: CCC-T, Jan. 15. “There were reasons”: Kennedy, quoted in Three Rivers News, Jan. 20. Blucher on extension: Stanford Dyer and Merrell Knighten, “Discrimination After Death: Lyndon Johnson and Felix Longoria,” Southern Studies, Winter 1978, p. 415. “Latin people get drunk”: “Sworn Statement,” signed Gladys Blucher, Feb. 9.
“The stigma”; “Gray was”; Connally interview and quoted in Pycior, p. 71. “Dear Lyndon”: Chesnut to Johnson, Jan. 14, Box 2, PPCF. Kennedy issued: “Statement by T. W. Kennedy,” CCC-T, Jan. 12.
Bexar resolution: “The Bexar County Central Council of the American Legion … passed the following resolutions,” Jan. 27, Box 2, PPCF; CCC-T, Jan. 28. “Many who”: DMN, Jan. 30. “Became”; “there were”: Connally interview. He and Clark: Clark, Connally interviews. “They were”: Oltorf interview.
“Previous”: Cunningham and Goebel to Johnson, Three Rivers News, Jan. 20. Implored: Smith to Garcia, Jan. 17, Box 3, PPCF. “Honored”; “proud”: For typical letters, see Johnson to Chapter 76, Disabled American Veterans, Jan. 12, or Johnson to Sergi, Jan. 13, both Box 2, PPCF.
“According to”: CCC-T, Jan. 16; Connally interview. Successive drafts: Johnson to Ramsey, Jan. 21; Johnson to “My dear Friend,” undated, Box 2, PPCF. “I did not”: Johnson to Rabe, Jan. 26, Box 2, PPCF. “MY ONLY”: Johnson to Montgomery, Jan. 28. By February 3rd, Johnson would be putting it this way: “I am not, nor have I ever been, personally interested in where the body of Felix Longoria is laid to rest. I received a telegram from a constituent setting out certain facts which I investigated before I replied to that telegram. I told the widow of Felix Longoria his body could be reburied in the Arlington National Cemetery or the National Cemetery at Fort Sam. I did not recommend what Mrs. Longoria should do, and I have consistently maintained that it was none of my business where the boy was reburied, but it was a matter for the next of kin, Mrs. Beatrice Longoria, to decide” (Johnson to Floore, Feb. 3, Box 3, PPCF). By March 15, Johnson would be writing that all he had done was to arrange “for the burial of an American soldier killed in action in the National Arlington Cemetery upon the request of his widow. This is, as you know, the privilege of every soldier. All that I did was to comply with the widow’s request by making this information available to her” (Johnson to Farley, March 15, Box 2, PPCF).
Johnson’s actions during Longorias’ visit: Busby, Connally, Jenkins, Woodward interviews. Johnson’s Desk Diary, which lists his appointments, has no mention of the Longorias on February 15th or 16th, or indeed at any time during that entire week (“Johnson’s Desk Diaries,” Box 1). “I don’t”: Connally interview. Johnson’s aides attempted to put the best face possible on his actions. For example, Busby says that Johnson didn’t stand with the Longoria family and the other dignitaries because “he didn’t want to detract from the family.” Connally said, “He didn’t go because his presence would have been interpreted as he was trying to make political capital out of the incident.” Given the closeness between Johnson and William S. White, and the extent to which the New York Times accepted White’s evaluation of the newsworthiness of Johnson’s activities, the contrast between the paper’s coverage of the original story about Longoria and of the funeral may be significant. The original story was on page 1. The paper apparently did not send White, or any other reporter, to the funeral. Its story on the funeral—a small story on page 18—was a UP dispatch. Articles in other newspapers may indicate that Johnson attempted—successfully—to stay out of the public eye at the funeral. The story in the New York Herald said that General Vaughan “stood at the head of the two long rows of coffins.” It does not mention Johnson. The Associated Press dispatch on the funeral—the article used by most newspapers—lists persons who attended, and includes Vaughan, Sierra, and the members of the Longoria family. The dispatch does not mention Johnson. (See, for example, the dispatch as carried in the CCC-T, Feb. 18.) Exactly where he stood during the service is unclear. The Washington Post said that Johnson “was joined at the graveside” by Vaughan, but the Dallas Morning News said Johnson “stood not far away as the family gathered at the graveside.” Johnson does not appear to have given a statement to reporters. Many newspapers carried this quote from Vaughan: “I came here because of the stupidity of that undertaker” (see, for example, WP, Feb. 18). No newspaper, so far as the author could determine, carried a quote from Johnson. “Because of”: Vaughan, quoted in Richard Zalade, “Last Rites, First Rights,” Texas Monthly, Jan. 1986.
“Impressive ceremony”: Johnson to Hector Garcia, Feb. 16, Box 2, PPCF. Texas House resolution: CCC-T, DMN, AA-S, Feb. 18. “Truth or”: DMN, Feb. 17.
Clark’s role: Clark, Oltof interviews. “Without Clark”: Oltorf interview. Oltorf understood: Oltorf interview, confirmed by Clark, Connally interviews. “He would ask”: Oltorf interview. Hearings: Pycior, pp. 72–73; DMN, HP, AA-S, CCC-T, March 10–12. “We don’t serve”: Sworn statement of Juventino Ponce, before notary public Hector de Pena, March 12, Box 3, PPCF. “Every time”; “no one ever”: Oltorf interview.
“Your name”: Gus Garcia to Johnson, March 16, Box 2, PPCF, confirmed by Oltorf interview. “John”: Nichols to Connally, undated; “I trust”: Johnson to Gus Garcia, March 18, Box 2, PPCF.
Majority, minority drafts: “Reports of the Committee Pursuant to H.S.R. No. 68, April 7, House Journal, pp. 1510–15. “A slap”: CCC-T, April 8. “I could not”: “Reports of the Committee, Minority Report,” p. 1514. “The two dissensions”; “a catalyst”; “into”: Richard Zalade, “Last Rites, First Rights,” Texas Monthly, Jan. 1986.; CCC-T, April 9. Before that: Hector Garcia, quoted in AA-S, Dec. 15, 1985. “He never”: Connally interview.
“He hated”: Connally interview.
Recounted: Pycior, LBJ and Mexican Americans, p. 80. “Olé”: Pycior, p. 92; Reedy interview.
“He addressed”; Corpus Christi boy; “I’m the helpful”; “He (Johnson)”: Hector Garcia OH. Adroit: Pycior interview. “Garcia thought”: Pycior, p. 76. “He answers”: Pycior interview.
Garza’s judgeship: Garza OH. Bravo’s job: Quezada, Border Boss, pp. 194–95, 201–05. “Johnson had”: Reedy OH VIII, p. 104.
“Bracero” program: Goodwyn, Lone Star Land, pp. 35–38. “Exiled”: Goodwyn, p. 35. “Something must be done”: Torres to Johnson, Mar. 10, 1952, Box 233, JSP. “Delighted”; “The people”: Johnson to growers, May 29, 1951; Looney to Johnson, July 13, 1951, Box 233, JSP. Looney was to recall that Johnson “abided by what you told him pretty much” (Pycior, p. 76).
In 1951 and 1952: Ronnie Dugger, “Johnson’s Record—I,” The Texas Observer, June 3, 1960.
“Flooded”; “Whereas”: Ed Idar Jr., “To Whom It May Concern,” July 6, 1952, Box 20, LBJA SN. “I am sorry”: Johnson to Idar, Nov. 14, 1952, Box 20, LBJA SN. “Opposed”: Brownell interview.
“Where else”: Clark, Connally interviews. “Johnson was aware”: Dyer, pp. 87, 88. “Disappointed”: Pycior, p. 93. “Believe me”: Johnson to Garcia, July 31, 1954, Box 66, JSP.
33. Footsteps
Bryant and Milam’s story: William Bradford Huie, “Approved Killing in Mississippi,” Look, Jan. 24, 1956. Pride of their lawyers: J. J. Breland, quoted in Whitfield, Death in the Delta, p. 54; Halberstam, The Fifties, p. 434.
“Day”: Autherine Lucy, quoted in “Alabama’s Scandal,” Time, Feb. 20, 1956. “Chased”; “murder”; Folsom’s orders: “Where Responsibility Lies,” New Republic, Feb. 20, 1956. “I could still”: Lucy, quoted in “Alabama’s Scandal,” Time, Feb. 20, 1956. Trustees’ action: “Miss Lucy of Alabama,” Commonweal, Feb. 24, 1956. “God knows”: Time, Feb. 20, 1956. At Moore’s home; “All I could do”: “South Worries over Miss Lucy,” Life, Feb. 20, 1956. At La Guardia: “Round Two in Alabama,” Time, March 12, 1956; “Segregation Victory,” Newsweek, March 12, 1956. Riot “worked”: Dennis Holt, quoted in Time, March 12, 1956; Branch, Parting the Waters, p. 181. “Woke”; “They filed”: Quoted in Martin, Deep South, p. 39. “Solid once more”: Martin, p. 41. Also s
ee “Where Responsibility Lies,” New Republic, Feb. 20, 1956.
“Come”: Gayle, quoted in Halberstam, p. 556. “To a largely”: Branch, p. 145. “I’m not walking”: Quoted in Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound, p. 76. “Every member”: King, quoted in Branch, p. 116. “That’s where”: King, quoted in Halberstam, p. 554. “Just happened”: King, quoted in Halberstam, p. 561. “Never given”: King, quoted in Oates, p. 78. “Hate begets”: King, quoted in Oates, p. 79. King’s arrest: Branch, p. 160; Oates, p. 86. “Get up”; Johns dropping his dime: Halberstam, pp. 544, 545.
“In every stage”: Eastland, quoted in Oates, pp. 91–92.
Grand jury and indictments: Branch, pp. 168, 176–78. “We have walked”: Abernathy, quoted in Branch, p. 173. King in Atlanta: Oates, pp. 92–94. With a number: Branch, p. 178.
Bombing of King’s home: Branch, pp. 164–66. “The remote calm”: Branch, p. 165. “I owe”: Oates, p. 90. A Gandhi: “Many of the Negroes would liken the sight of King with his hand raised to the famous poses of Gandhi or to Jesus calming the waters of the troubled sea” (Branch, p. 166).
Press coverage of bus boycott: Halberstam, pp. 555 ff.; Oates, pp. 97 ff.; Branch, pp. 185 ff. “The more coverage”: Halberstam, p. 560. “Are you afraid”; “the kind of welcome”: New York Amsterdam News, March 31, 1956, quoted in Branch, p. 185. “I went directly”: Edita Morris to King, Aug. 10, 1956, quoted in Lamont H. Yeakey, “The Montgomery Alabama Bus Boycott, 1955–56,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1979, Vol. II, p. 606.
Injunction and King’s trial: Oates, p. 102; Branch, pp. 192–94. “I’m afraid”; “clock said”: King, quoted in Oates, p. 102. “Yes, I am”: Halberstam, p. 562.
Heightened fury: Oates, pp. 108–09. “Lord”: King, quoted in Oates, p. 110.
Dawson’s political power: Lemann, Promised Land, pp. 74–75. “Just one step”: Dawson, quoted in White, Making of the President, 1960, p. 232.
Train and bus stations: Lemann, pp. 15, 43. Black migration to North: Lemann, passim; Halberstam, pp. 442–55; White, Making of the President, 1960, pp. 203, 230–37. “They went north”: Halberstam, p. 443. “Money and dignity”: Lemann, p. 65. Twenty thousand, etc.: Lemann, p. 70. Ninety percent: White, p. 231. A better job: Reston, quoted in Halberstam, p. 442.
Kennelly and Dawson: Lemann, pp. 76–77.
“A new kind”; “these men”: White, Making of the President, 1960, pp. 232–36; Carl Rowan, “Who Gets the Negro Vote?” Look, Nov. 13, 1956.
Democratic strategists: Branch, p. 192; White, Making of the President, 1960, pp. 232–34; Watson, Lion in the Lobby, pp. 355–56; Richard L. Neuberger, “Democrats’ Dilemma: Civil Rights,” NYT Magazine, July 7, 1957; Cabell Phillips, “Civil Rights Pose Hard Choice for Democrats,” NYT, Sec. IV, April 18, 1956. Also such 1956 newspaper articles as Amarillo Globe-Times, Nov. 1; WSJ, April 6; WP, April 1; Stokes, WS, April 3. Thirty-five districts: Reston, NYT, July 24, 1957. “We Negroes”: Rowan, “Who Gets the Negro Vote?” Look, Nov. 13, 1956. Republican strategy: NYT, Dec. 2, 1956; WP, May 14, 1955; USN & WR, July 26, 1957; Brownell interview.
“Republicans would”: Minnich, LLM, Jan. 16, 1956, Box 12, DDEL. “Reaffirmed”: Minnich, LLM, Jan. 24, 1956, Box 12, DDEL. “I did not agree”: Eisenhower, White House Years, p. 149. “He had many”; “darkies”: Ambrose, Eisenhower, p. 125. Stag dinner: Warren, Memoirs, p. 291–92. “I personally”: DDEPP (1957), pp. 546–57, 555, quoted in Ambrose, p. 410. Not once: Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 753. Kluger, pp. 726–28, 753–54, has a summary of Eisenhower’s attitude on Brown. In Ambrose, it’s pp. 190–92, 304–06, 408. “to associate himself”: Ambrose, p. 143. “I think”: DDEPP (1956), pp. 736–37, DDEL; Williams, Eyes on the Prize, p. 38. “The President’s”: Ambrose, p. 409. “To stand”: Kluger, p. 753. “Tremendous”: Kluger, p. 753. “The people”: Ambrose, p. 337.
Eisenhower and Till case: Ambrose, p. 305; Whitfield, pp. 70–75. Did not even respond: Whitfield, pp. 74–75. Lucy case: Ambrose, p. 306. On King case: DDEPP (1956), p. 335, DDEL. “A fine general”: Wilkins, Standing Fast, p. 222.
“Strong”: Harlow interview. “Compulsion”; “core beliefs”: Ambrose, pp. 327, 125. Nelson story: Ambrose, p. 369. Had seen a chance: Lawson, Black Ballots, pp. 150–52; Manchester, Glory, pp. 769–70; New Republic, Aug. 12, 1957; Amarillo Globe-Times, Nov. 1, 1956; NYT, Jan. 8, 1956, July 21, 1957; Reston, NYT, July 24, 1957.
Brownell’s attitude and strategy: Anderson, Eisenhower, pp. 14–27; Brownell, pp. 190–218; Brownell, Harlow, Rogers interviews. “Unbounded”: Ambrose, p. 124. “Scourge”: Brownell, p. 199. Had left instructions; “quite deeply”: Brownell interview.
“Our hands”: Brownell, p. 219. Gave him permission: Ambrose, p. 304; Brownell, p. 199. “I initially”: Brownell, p. 218. “Where”: Cabinet Series, March 9, 1956, Box 6, DDEL. “After”: Brownell, p. 219. “Another Charles Sumner”: Brownell, Advising Ike, p. 219. “If someone”: Eisenhower, quoted in Ambrose, p. 327. Keating maneuver: Anderson, pp. 40–41, 43.
Celler subordinating: Edelsberg and Brody, “Civil Rights in the 84th Congress,” p. 5; Washington, D.C., Office, Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, Welsh Collection, File No. 4, “Civil Rights,” Oct. 29, 1956; Bolling, Celler, Rauh interviews. “A model bill”: Douglas, Fullness of Time, p. 281. “A dream bill”: Rauh interview. Situation in the House: Hardeman and Bacon, Rayburn, pp. 418–21; Bolling, Brownell, Celler interviews. “He wanted”: “only fair”: Bolling interview. “Rayburn was for it.”: Bolling, Rauh interviews. Anderson (Eisenhower, p. 47) says, “By things left unsaid and undone, rather than by any affirmative commitment, the Speaker had given his party’s liberals a clear impression that he would not block the bill if it could be brought to the floor.”
“I am sick”: Unidentified senator, in NYT, April 8, 1956. Hennings’ bills: Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 1956, pp. 463–64; Watson, p. 335; NYT, March 4, April 1, 10, 1955; Jan. 1, 12, 1956. And then: “Telephone call from Tom Hennings,” March 19, 1956, Box 45, LBJA SN; NYT, March 4, April 1, 10, 1956. Exactly twelve: Edelsberg and Brody, “Civil Rights in the 84th Congress,” Washington, D.C.: Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, Oct. 29, 1956, p. 1.
“I had special”: Eastland, quoted in Lawson, Black Ballots, pp. 156–57; in Sherrill, Accidental President, p. 210; “Eastland Speech Excerpts,” Aug. 13, 1956, NAACP, WB-134, LC, quoted in Watson, p. 338. “You are not required”: Eastland, quoted in Whitfield, p. 35. “The one seat”: New Republic, March 12, 1956. “Unthinkable”: NYT, Feb. 24, 1956. “Maybe”: NYT, March 4, 1956. Johnson’s reply: Reedy, Steele interviews. “I had”: Eastland OH; Watson, p. 338. Out of his way: Eastland OH. Unrecorded vote: NYT, March 3, 1956; Time, March 12, 1956. “A mad dog”: NYT, March 5, 1956.
34. Finesses
All dates are 1956 unless otherwise noted.
“Southern Manifesto”: NYT, March 12, 13. Drafted by Thurmond, Byrd; edited by Russell: Cohodas, Strom Thurmond, pp. 283–84; Fite, Russell, p. 333; Goldsmith, Colleagues, p. 51; NYT, March 13. “One would”: Morse, quoted in Cohodas, p. 286.
“A dangerous, deceptive”: Gore, quoted in Miller, Lyndon, p. 187. “Kefauver said, ‘I just don’t agree with it’ The Supreme Court decision is now the law of the land and must be followed, Mr. Kefauver said” (NYT, March 12). “He had not been shown”: NYT, March 12. Johnson’s formal statement said: “I have neither seen this document, nor have I been asked to sign it.” “STATEMENT BY SENATOR LYNDON B. JOHNSON (D-TEX), MARCH 10, 1956,” Box 423, JSP.
He had been present: LBJ Chronologies, 1956, p. 3. In his oral history interview with George Reedy, Mike Gillette, then Director of Oral History for the Johnson Library, said, “LBJ did attend a meeting for southern senators in Senator George’s office in early February, I guess, and they did discuss the issues of segregation and interposition.” Reedy replied, “Yes. I don’t remember it at all” (Reedy OH VIII, p. 102). When the author asked Reedy if Johnson had attended any of the Southern Caucus meetings about the Southern Mani
festo, Reedy said, “Well, I remember one where there was one heck of a fight, but I wasn’t there.” Asked how he knew about it, he said he had been told about it by both Johnson and Russell.
“You liberals”: Humphrey OH III, p. 13. Humphrey also said: “He was very proud of the fact that he didn’t sign it. Also, he used it” (Humphrey, quoted in Dallek, p. 496). “Was, indeed”: White, Professional, p. 211. “One of the”: Neuberger, quoted in Miller, p. 188. Reedy said: “I suspect that what he [Russell] sold them on was ‘Hey, look, we might get a southerner in the White House, don’t queer it’ He wouldn’t use that kind of language, but I believe that’s what he probably told them privately. But the public rationale was you would not ask the leadership to sign something like this” (OH VIII, p. 100).
“Russell was very”: Reedy OH VIII, p. 100. “Anybody that signed”: Reedy OH VIII, p. 99. In his 1996 book, Robert Mann wrote, “An unabashed Johnson fan, Neuberger perhaps exaggerated the extent of his leader’s valor” (Mann, p. 164). “The real reason”: Fite, p. 336. “He had to”: Stennis OH. “In my opinion”: “STATEMENT BY SENATOR LYNDON B. JOHNSON (D-TEX), MARCH 10, I956,” Box 423, JSP. “He believed”: NYT, April 22. “No question”: Russell, quoted in AC, June 29.
“One hundred percent”: Ellender, quoted in San Antonio News, March 23. “One thousand percent”: Smathers, quoted in Mexia Daily News, March 12. Almost every: For Holland’s endorsement, see Richmond Times-Dispatch, May 8; for Byrd’s, Williamson Star, April 26; for Robertson’s, Robertson to Symington, April 12, Drawer 115, Folder 11, Robertson Papers; for Price Daniel’s, NYT, March 12; for Russell’s official endorsement, WP, July 1; for a general roundup of the support for Johnson from southern senators, Baltimore News-Post, March 20; WS, March 25.
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