Courage Has No Color
Page 11
“To tell you . . . we’ll never forget.” Cassidy, Tiger Ted Lowry.
“We treasure diversity . . . makes us better.” Pryor, American Forces Press Service.
“We succeeded . . . great country’s history.” Brokaw, p. 229.
BOOKS
Astor, Gerald. The Right to Fight: A History of African Americans in the Military. Novato, CA: Presidio, 1998.
Biggs, Bradley. Gavin. Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1980.
———. The Triple Nickles: America’s First All-Black Paratroop Unit. Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1986.
Bogle, Donald. Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Films. New York: Continuum, 2001.
Brokaw, Tom. The Greatest Generation Speaks: Letters and Reflections. New York: Random House, 1999.
Buckley, Gail. American Patriots: The Story of Blacks in the Military from the Revolution to Desert Storm. New York: Random House, 2001.
Cohen, Stan. A Pictorial History of Smokejumping. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories, 1983.
Colley, David P. Blood for Dignity: The Story of the First Integrated Combat Unit in the U.S. Army. New York: St. Martin’s, 2003.
Dalfiume, Richard M. Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939–1953. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1969.
Goodwin, Doris Kearns. No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.
Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Lanning, Michael Lee. The African-American Soldier: From Crispus Attucks to Colin Powell. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing, 1997.
Latty, Yvonne. We Were There: Voices of African American Veterans, from World War II to the War in Iraq. New York: Amistad, 2004.
Lundy, William H. The Triple Nickles: 50th Anniversary Commemorative Book. Columbus, GA: Richard W. Williams Chapter, Host Chapter, 1994.
McGuire, Phillip. He, Too, Spoke for Democracy: Judge Hastie, World War II, and the Black Soldier. New York: Greenwood, 1988.
———. Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War II. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1983.
Mikesh, Robert C. Japanese Paper Balloon Bombs: The First ICBM. North Hills, PA: Bird & Bull Press, 1982.
———. Japan’s World War II Balloon Bomb Attacks on North America. Washington, D.C.: National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Annals of Flight, No. 9, 1973.
Morehouse, Maggi M. Fighting in the Jim Crow Army: Black Men and Women Remember World War II. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.
Motley, Mary Penick. The Invisible Soldier: The Experience of the Black Soldier, World War II. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1975. [This is a compilation of interviews and letters that tell the missing stories of some African-American soldiers.]
Nalty, Bernard C. Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military. New York: Free Press, 1986.
O’Donnell, Patrick K. Beyond Valor: World War II’s Rangers and Airborne Veterans Reveal the Heart of Combat. New York: Free Press, 2001.
Okada, Reiko. Translated by Jean Inglis. Ohkuno Island: Story of the Student Brigade. 1989.
Powell, Colin L., with Joseph E. Persico. My American Journey. New York: Random House, 1995.
Schoenfeld, Seymour J. The Negro in the Armed Forces: His Value and Status, Past, Present, and Potential. Washington, D.C.: Associated Publishers, 1945.
Silberman, Charles E. Crisis in Black and White. New York: Random House, 1964.
Van Deburg, William L. Slavery & Race in American Popular Culture. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984.
Verney, Kevern. African Americans and U.S. Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Webber, Bert. Silent Siege: Japanese Attacks Against North America in World War II. Fairfield, WA: Ye Galleon Press, 1984.
Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. New York: Vintage, 2011.
Wright, Kai. Soldiers of Freedom: An Illustrated History of African Americans in the Armed Forces. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal, 2002.
Wynn, Neil A. The Afro-American and the Second World War. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1993.
Yenne, Bill. Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II. New York: Thomas Dunne, 2007.
ARTICLES
Aizenman, Nurith C. “Black Soldiers Battled Fascism and Racism.” Washington Post, May 26, 2004.
Andrade, Dale. “Trial by Fire.” Retired Officer Magazine, February 2002.
Appel, Allan. “‘Tiger’ Ted Headed for Hall of Fame.” New Haven Independent, August 20, 2008.
“Army Honors Triple Nickles Legacy at Pentagon Ceremony.” States News Service, March 30, 2010.
Awosika, Mary. “Jumping toward Equality.” Sarasota Herald Tribune, February 2, 2006.
Beavers, Clarence. “Conversations with My Daughter.” Autobiographical essay written for the Triple Nickles website, http://www.triplenickle.com/beavers.htm
Bennett, Lerone Jr. “Chronicles of Black Courage: William H. Hastie.” Ebony, August 2001, pp. 96–100.
“Black Veterans Recall Their Roles in D-Day Invasion.” Jet, June 20, 1994.
Corbet, Mark. “The Death of PFC Malvin L. Brown: In the Interest of Public Welfare.” Smokejumper Magazine, July 2006, p. 14.
“4 Airborne Groups Prepare to March.” New York Times, January 11, 1946.
Garcia, J. Malcolm. “German POWs on the American Homefront.” Smithsonian Magazine, September 16, 2009.
Gennaro, Lorraine. “Keeping the Legacy Alive: Two Retired Army Paratroopers Are Triple Nickles.” South Philly Review, November 24, 2005.
Gidlund, Carl. “Black Paratroopers Were WWII Smokejumpers.” National Smokejumpers Association newsletter, The Static Line, April 1994, p. 8.
———. “Intercontinental Bombing Targeted U.S., Led to Paratrooper Deployment as Smokejumpers.” Smokejumper Magazine, April 2001, p. 21.
Gonzalez, Kris. “Triple Nickles Recall Days of Segregated Army.” U.S. Army, February 18, 2010.
Hendrickson, Paul. “The Triple Nickles and Change: Black WWII Paratroopers Gather to Recollect Their Home-Front Battles.” Washington Post, August 8, 1997.
Hervieux, Linda. “All-Black Battalion That Landed in Normandy, France on D-Day to Be Honored on Anniversary of Siege.” New York Daily News, June 5, 2009.
Kersten, Andrew E. “African Americans and World War II.” OAH Magazine of History, vol. 16, no. 3, World War II Homefront (spring 2002): pp. 13–17.
Krause, Lisa. “Black Soldiers in WWII: Fighting Enemies at Home and Abroad.” National Geographic News, February 15, 2001.
Morris, Walter. “Baseplate.” Autobiographical essay written for the Triple Nickles website, http://www.triplenickle.com/waltermorris.htm.
Murchison, Joseph L. “Triple Nickles Invites Smokejumper Members.” Smokejumper Magazine, April 2000, p. 24.
Nolte, Carl. “Memories That Will Never Dim/Black Soldiers Who Fought Battle of Bulge Honored for Heroism.” San Francisco Chronicle, February 16, 1995.
Pave, Marvin. “‘Tiger’ Ted Lowry, Who Twice Went the Distance Against Marciano; at 90.” Boston Globe, June 29, 2010.
Phillips, Wayne. “Negro Minister Convicted of Directing Bus Boycott.” New York Times, March 23, 1956.
Pryor, Mike, Army Staff Sgt. “Sixty Years after Integration, Opportunities Abound for Minority Soldiers.” American Forces Press Service, July 28, 2008.
Ray, Tina. “Fort Bragg’s Airborne and Special Operations Museum’s New Exhibit Tells the Story of 555th Parachute Infantry Regiment.” U.S. Army, March 3, 2009.
Ross, Paul. “Remembering the Triple Nickle.” Wildland Firefighter Magazine, June 2005.
Roston, Tom. “Spike Lee Discusses ‘Miracle at St. Anna’ (and Obama).” Los Angeles T
imes, September 25, 2008.
Rufty, Bill. “Paratrooper Fought Two Foes: Enemy, Racism.” The Ledger, June 11, 2010.
“Science: Balloon Bombs.” Time, June 11, 1945.
“Seeing the World Through the Eyes of Ashley Bryan, Storyteller.” At Cooper Union, summer 2009, pp. 10–13.
Shaughnessy, Larry. “Trailblazing Paratrooper Broke Color Barrier in Secret.” CNN.com, March 25, 2010.
Sherwell, Philip. “African-American D-Day Veterans Celebrate Barack Obama’s Trip to Normandy.” The Telegraph, June 6, 2009.
Sosbe, Kathryn. “Triple Nickles Bring Smoke-jumper History to Life.” USDA Forest Service, April 5, 2010.
Thompson, Allison. “Paratrooper a Pioneer for Blacks: Hyde Grove Resident Recalls WWII Ordeal.” Florida Times Union, October 18, 1997.
Thompson, Don. “First Black Paratroopers Fought Racism, Fires.” Seattle Times, June 25, 2000.
Trapp, Brian. “First Black Paratrooper Pins Grandson.” U.S. Army TRADOC News Service, February 6, 2004.
Vernon, John. “Jim Crow, Meet Lieutenant Robinson: A 1944 Court-Martial.” Prologue. National Archives Publication, vol. 40, no. 1 (spring 2008).
“What Next, Please?” Time, January 1, 1945.
Wilkinson, Jeff. “Pioneering African-American Paratrooper Fought WWII Japanese Bombs on Home Soil.” South Carolina’s The State, August 14, 2010.
Williams, Rudi SGM. “‘Triple Nickles’ Proved Blacks Could Jump from Airplanes.” Special Commemorative Issue of Patriots Magazine, 1990.
AUDIO INTERVIEWS
Audiotape Interviews with John Thomas Martin, Interviewer, Oral Military History Project for the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University.
BMOH1: Clifford Allen, July 5, 1990, Washington, D.C.
BMOH2: Clarence Beavers and Walter Morris, July 6, 1990, Washington, D.C.
BMOH3: Bradley Biggs, July 3, 1990, Washington, D.C.
Oral History Interview with Judge William H. Hastie, Conducted on January 5, 1972, by Jerry N. Hess, in Philadelphia, PA. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hastie.htm#transcript.
“The State We’re In: Operation Firefly.” Radio Netherlands Worldwide, Jonathan Groubert, host. Interview of Walter Morris, March 3, 2011. http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/ operation-firefly.
Walter Morris Collection (AFC/2001/001/2946), audio recording (SR01), Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress. Recorded November 21, 2002.
MOVIES/TELEVISION
Becktold, Terry. World War II in a Wild West Town. A Production of the Pendleton Air Museum, 2009.
Beyond Barbed Wire. Kit Parker Films, 2001.
Brokaw, Tom. “The Home of the Brave: They Saved the World,” NBC News. Aired November 4, 1999.
Burns, Ken, and Lynn Novick. Written by Geoffrey C. Ward. The War. WETA, Washington, D.C., and America Lives II Film Project, PBS, 2007. http://www.pbs.org/thewar/search_details.php?id=5381&type=3.
Capra, Frank. The Negro Soldier. 1944.
Cassidy, Chris. Tiger Ted Lowry. October 2009.
Ding, Loni. The Color of Honor. Distributed by National Asian American Telecommunications Association, 1988.
Lee, Spike. Miracle at St. Anna. 2008.
Nickles from Heaven. Steve Crump & WTVI Charlotte Public Television, 2000.
Smith, Stevan M. Smokejumpers: Firefighters from the Sky. National Smokejumper Association, 2000.
Sol, Ilana. On Paper Wings. Film Is Forever Productions, 2008.
OTHER
Stevan Smith. Transcripts of additional interviews conducted for the National Smokejumper Association film Smokejumpers: Firefighters from the Sky.
To learn about the kinds of parachutes that were used by the 555th, I read selections from Steven J. Mrozek’s 82nd Airborne Division, “A Brief History about the Evolution of the Parachute.” Paducah, KY: Turner, 1997.
To learn details about the four-week training that took place at Fort Benning in 1943, I turned to “History of Development of Airborne Courses of Instruction at the Quartermaster School, 1947–1953.”
To learn about airborne training and techniques, I used the War Department’s Basic Field Manual: Tactics and Technique of Air-Borne Troops. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, May 20, 1942.
Photography credits are listed in the order in which photographs appear in each chapter.
FRONT MATTER
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
Courtesy of Ashley Bryan
CHAPTER ONE
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
(Group of four images) Critical Past.com/U.S. Army
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
CHAPTER TWO
National Archives (357-G-203-4690)
Courtesy of Walter Morris
Courtesy of Clarence Beavers
National Archives and Office of War Information (ARC Identifier 535607/Local Identifier 208-COM-13)
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA/OWI Collection, LC-DIG-fsa-8a26761, Lee Russell, photographer
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA/OWI Collection, LC-DIG-ppmsca-12888, Marion Post Wolcott, photographer
Everett Collection
Everett Collection
Everett Collection
Advertising Archive/Everett Collection
Advertising Archive/Everett Collection
Advertising Archive/Everett Collection
Photographs and Prints Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations/Image by Gordon Anderson
General Research & Reference Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations/Image by Winold Reiss
Scurlock Studio Records, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center, Smithsonian Institution
National Archives and Office of War Information (ARC Identifier 535604/Local Identifier 208-COM-10)
Courtesy of Ashley Bryan
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
CHAPTER THREE
Courtesy of the United States Air Force Historical Research Agency
Courtesy of Walter Morris
National Archives and Office of War Information (ARC Identifier 535685/Local Identifier 208-COM-222)
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Toni Frissell, photographer
National Archives (208-FS-872-3)
CHAPTER FOUR
Courtesy U.S. Army Signal Corps/Private Jim Buck
© Bettmann/Corbis
Courtesy of Carina Biggs/U.S. Army
Courtesy U.S. Army
© Bettmann/Corbis
Courtesy of Airborne and Special Operations Museum
Courtesy of U.S. Army Signal Corps
Courtesy of U.S. Army Signal Corps
CHAPTER FIVE
Courtesy of U.S. Army
Photograph from the collection of Ted Lowry, courtesy of Alice Lowry
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
Courtesy of Carina Biggs/U.S. Army
Courtesy of Samuel Robinson and Carolyn Carter
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
© Bettmann/Corbis
National Archives (208-FS-1783-1)
National Archives (208-FS-1783-2)
Courtesy of U.S. Army
CriticalPast.com/U.S. Army
CHAPTER SIX
National Archives/U.S. Army Signal Corps (111-SC-202330)
National Archives (208-PU-120V)
National Archives and Office of War Information, ARC Identifier 535598/Local Identifier 208-COM-4
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
National Archives/
U.S. Army Signal Corps (111-SC-196106-S)
National Archives/U.S. Army Signal Corps (111-SC-190120)
Courtesy U.S. Army Signal Corps/General George Patton Memorial Museum
Courtesy U.S. Army Signal Corps/General George Patton Memorial Museum
National Archives (208-AA-47U-6)
National Archives (80-G-218861)
National Archives (127-N-9527)
CHAPTER SEVEN
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
National Archives (210-G-3B-414)
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Ansel Adams (LC-DIG-ppprs-00284)
National Museum of the Pacific War, Nimitz Education and Research Center, Robert C. Mikesh Collection
National Museum of the Pacific War, Nimitz Education and Research Center, Robert C. Mikesh Collection
National Museum of the Pacific War, Nimitz Education and Research Center, Robert C. Mikesh Collection
National Museum of the Pacific War, Nimitz Education and Research Center, Robert C. Mikesh Collection
National Museum of the Pacific War, Nimitz Education and Research Center, Robert C. Mikesh Collection
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
National Archives (342-FH-3B-42503-29888ac)
National Archives (342-FH-3B-42495-B-30004ac)
National Archives (342-FH-3B-42509-29990ac)
National Archives (342-FH-3B-42512-29986ac)
CHAPTER EIGHT
National Archives (342-FH-3B-42508-29999ac)
Courtesy of Jordon (JJ) Corbett
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
Courtesy of U.S. Army Air Forces
National Archives (342-FH-3B-42504-29985ac)
CHAPTER NINE
Courtesy of the 82nd Airborne Division Museum, Ft. Bragg, North Carolina
Courtesy of U.S. Army