Operation Storm: Japan's Top Secret Submarines and Its Plan to Change the Course of World War II

by John Geoghegan

  A new Japan arose out of the ashes of World War II. Her postwar constitution mandates she remain a pacifist, nonnuclear nation, with a military deterrent focused solely on defense. Despite this fact, Japan’s military budget in 2010 was the sixth largest in the world, behind the United States, China, France, the U.K., and Russia.55 Though the U.S. security umbrella protects the Japanese from aggressors, it has made for an oddly reliant relationship. While by no means a vassal state, Japan is not wholly independent either, especially where national defense is concerned. Sixty-six years after the war ended, the United States remains “the dominant military force in the Pacific” and continues to wield a strong military, cultural, and economic influence on Japan.56 It is precisely this fear of U.S. hegemony that drove Japan to attack Pearl Harbor in the first place. It also explains the strong nationalistic streak alive in some parts of Japan today. The United States even exercises wide influence over Japan’s submarine force. For example, the JMSDF relies on diesel subs, even though it could easily afford to buy and operate nuclear ones. The U.S. military prefers it this way.

  The Imperial Japanese Navy’s dream of launching airplanes from a submarine was not as easily frustrated. This legacy is surprising, considering that the Sen-toku force saw only eight months of service between commissioning and surrender: its Seiran never flew in combat; its subs never fired a shot in anger; it attacked not a single enemy. But that didn’t make a difference for the men who served on the subs and planes. They were prepared to die nonetheless.

  It’s not particularly strange, then, that the Naval General Staff’s plan to bomb New York and Washington, D.C., the Panama Canal, and Ulithi is so little known. Cold war secrecy has something to do with it, as does failure. But the chief reason the I-400s’ story is not well known is that victors rarely celebrate their enemy’s courage and determination.

  There are few signs today that the I-400s ever existed. Several items can be found in personal collections and in one or two institutions, including the USS Bowfin Submarine Museum at Pearl Harbor. Among the objects scattered among various prize crew members are a bridge compass, a barometer, a sword, Seiran aircrew insignia, uniform buttons, personal mail, chopsticks, a teacup, and the notes (written in English) that I-401 officers used to negotiate the sub’s surrender with Captain Johnson. Additional objects have been auctioned on eBay.

  Among the relics thought to have been destroyed when the war ended were the I-400s’ blueprints. The author stumbled upon the only existing set during a visit to a naval base in Japan. While discussing the I-400s with the base’s commandant, a staff officer mentioned a box that had recently been given to them when its owner, a former IJN engineer, died. Inside the box was a complete set of the I-400s’ plans, meticulously drawn on wax-coated silk. The engineer had taken the plans when the war ended and kept them at his house for safe keeping. Since orders had been given to destroy the blueprints at the end of the war, the staff officer had not returned them to Self Defense headquarters in Tokyo. By an accident of history, the I-400s continue to live.

  For the most part, however, the subs are considered a historical footnote. Their story is better known in Japan (where you can build a nifty model of the I-400 and a Seiran), but not by much. It mostly lives in the memories of the few surviving crew members, who are rapidly dying off. For the younger generation, World War II is about as relevant as the Hundred Years’ War. Most have never heard of the I-400s.

  The moral of the story, that courage and perseverance are not enough, is difficult to absorb. The commitment of Ariizumi, Nambu, and the Sen-toku crew could not overcome the poor strategic and operational planning of the IJN High Command. Both the Allies and the Japanese believed theirs was a just cause, but it takes more than sentiment to win a war. Advanced technology, adaptive ability, production efficiencies, and superior logistics are also necessary for success.

  That the I-400 subs failed in their mission is less important than the fact that they got as far as they did, given the daunting obstacles they faced. In other words, the story of the Sen-toku subs is about determination in the face of overwhelming odds. Yes, the storm from a clear sky never materialized as predicted, but it wasn’t for want of trying.

  * The actual number of Japanese submarines at the beginning of World War II varies by source. Ito says that by December 1941, Japan had 64 submarines; see The End of the Imperial Japanese Navy, p. 155. Bagnasco confirms this number in Submarines of World War II, p. 176. Other accounts cite totals ranging between 60 and 63 submarines.

  † Once again it’s difficult to say with absolute certainty how many Japanese subs were lost during World War II because so many files were destroyed. For example, John D. Alden says 128 Japanese subs were lost; see The Fleet Submarine in the U.S. Navy, p. ix. According to Boyd and Yoshida, Japanese Submarine Force and World War II, “127 of about 160 large submarines in service during the war were lost” (p. xiii). The actual number makes little difference. Bottom line, by August 1945 the Sixth Fleet was virtually wiped out.

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  This project might never have happened if my editor at Aviation History magazine, Carl von Wodtke, hadn’t had the courage to green-light my story about the I-400 subs and their Seiran aircraft. Still, a work of nonfiction is impossible to write without the cooperation of many people. Accordingly, I’d like to thank the following:

  Martin Bennett; Dick Budzienny (in Australia); Tom and Lisa Cohen; Frits de Jong (in the Netherlands); Charles J. Doane; John W. Dower, Ford International Professor of [Japanese] History at MIT; David Dugan, Chairman of Windfall Films, Ltd.; George Gambel; Dr. Sara L. Gandy; Robert D. Hackett of Combined​fleet.​com; Adam Hochschild at the Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism; Patrick Householder, national commander of United States Submarine Veterans, Inc.; Sander Kingsepp of Combined​fleet.​com; Kevin Leonard of The Leonard Group; Robert C. Mikesh; Rich “Pete” Peterson, webmaster at Segundo​398.​org; Adm. (ret.) Maurice H. Rindskopf; Sam Saliba; Anna Saraceno and Eric Stange at Spy Pond Productions; Alan Tansman at the University of California, Berkeley; William Thibodeaux; and Norma Whitmire.

  My mother, Margaret Geoghegan, offered me important moral and financial support throughout this project. Tom and Maggie Bedecarré generously provided me with a place to stay while I was completing the book; Toshiko Ozasayama believed in me despite my many failings; Hazuki Yoshino babysat and made travel arrangements; and Beth Geoghegan put me up for a month when I had no place else to go. Importantly, my brother, Michael Geoghegan, provided me with his love, support, and wisdom through every step of the process. I couldn’t have done it without him.

  I also owe a special debt to my interviewer/researchers, Yayoi and Takuji Ozasayama, and to my translators: Marie Abe, Laura Keehn, Reiko Konitzer, Robin Colomb Sugiura, Yumi Kijima, and Erika Römer. Special thanks also go to my readers Kirk Citron, who suffered an early draft; Norman Polmar, columnist for the U.S. Naval Institute; Professor Emeritus Carl Boyd, Old Dominion University; Oliver Mittermaier; Jonathan Parshall; Bob McLean; Emil Petrinic; and my sensei, Rear Adm. (ret.) Yoichi Hirama. Illustrator and photographer Emil Petrinic rendered an exceptionally fine map and cutaway diagram of the I-400 sub, and shot the author photograph. Thanks also to Robert Hanshew, museum curator, Photographs at the Naval History and Heritage Command in Washington, D.C., for his assistance in selecting photographs for this book.

  In Japan, I’d like to thank Ken Dota, who was a tremendous help tracking down people and setting up interviews, as well as Izumi Fuji; Toshio Ichiki; Junya Katsume; Tohru Kizu, editor in chief/director at Ships of the World; Hiro Nagashima; Tetsukuni Watanabe; and Nobutaka Nambu, for helping me to better understand his father’s long and distinguished life. I’d also like to thank Iroha-kai (Japan’s Submarine Veterans Association), the Mikasa Preservation Society, as well as the Japanese Naval Academy (Etajima) and both Togo and Yasukuni shrines.

  The Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force was also helpful in assisting my research. I’d like to ext
end my heartfelt appreciation to Vice Adm. (ret.) Mitsunori Akeno; Rear Adm. Izuru Fukumoto, chief of staff and commandant of Kure District, JMSDF; Rear Adm. (ret.) Masao Ikemura, secretary general of Suikou Kai (Japan Naval Association); Capt. (ret.) Greg K. Kouta; Capt. Sanji Nyui, commander of Submarine Flotilla Two, Yokosuka, JMSDF; Capt. Tahiko Tanaka, commanding officer of the Submarine Training Center, JMSDF, Kure; and his senior staff officer.

  Obviously, there would have been no book without the kindness and cooperation of the Sen-toku squadron’s officers and crew. I would like to thank the I-401’s captain, Nobukiyo Nambu, for his graciousness and candor. Additionally, Yoshio Andoh, Muneo Bando, Chin-Ji Inouye, and Tsugio Yata, all of the I-401, opened their homes and were extremely generous with their time and patience in answering my questions. Atsushi Asamura and Heiji Kondo, both of the 631st air group, also spent significant time with me, for which I am grateful.

  I also want to thank the I-400’s officers and crew for speaking with me, including Fukumaru Koshimoto, Shoici Matsutani, Izumi Fuji (daughter of Hidetoshi Namura), Masami Nariari, Kazuo Nishijima, Masao Okui, Sutejiro Shimazu, Haruo Sugiyama, and Kazuo Takatsu, as well as Chikanori Hatanaka of the 631st air group.

  An equally hearty thanks is extended to the officers and crew of the USS Segundo (SS 398) for speaking with me, including: John Balson, Richard Binkley, Carlo Carlucci, Leon Crouse, Vic Horgan, Rod Johnson, Wallace Karnes, Jr., Harry McCartney, Robert O’Connor, Bud Quam, and Carl Stallcop. Many of their family members also deserve thanks, including Miriam Miller Balson, Mrs. Richard Binkley, Mike Carlucci, Suze Johnson Comerford, Lynne Fulp, Mary Lee Horgan, Nadia M. Johnson, Steve Johnson, Jr., Marge McCartney, Carolie McLaughlin, and Karen Pittman.

  I’m also grateful to the U.S. prize crews and their families for allowing me to interview them, including Harry Arvidson (I-400), Lynda Arvidson Cambron, Gordon Hiatt (I-400), Dave Johnson (whose father was a member of the I-400’s prize crew), Donald Pierson (I-401), Lou Reynolds (I-14), and Paul Wittmer (I-401).

  Special mention should also be made of three texts that proved crucial to my understanding of the Sen-toku subs and their crew. The first is Lt. Cdr. Nobukiyo Nambu’s memoir, Beikidoukantai wo Kishuseyo: Sensuikuubo I-401 Kanchou No Shuki [Surprise Attack on the American Fleet! Memoir of the I-401 Aircraft-Carrying Submarine by Its Captain] (Tokyo: Fuami Shobo, 1988). Next is Tsugio Sato’s history of the Sen-toku force, Maboroshi no Sensui Kubo [Phantom Submarine Carrier] (Tokyo: Kabushiki Gaisha Kojin-sha, 1989). And finally, Ens. Kazuo Takahashi’s memoir, Shinryu Tokubetsu Kogekitai [Divine Dragon Special Attack Unit] (Tokyo: Koujinsha, 2001). These three books proved immensely helpful in helping me parse fact from myth.

  At the University of Hawaii’s Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL), I’d like to thank Max Cremer; operations manager Terry Kerby, who showed me what life was like inside a deepwater submersible—I want one of those coffee cups, Terry; Rachel S. Orange; Steven L. Price; and Dr. John C. Wiltshire.

  At the Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum, I’d like to thank Tom D. Crouch, senior curator of the Division of Aeronautics; and Robert M. McLean, Jr., and Matthew Nazzaro, whose loving and historically accurate restoration of the world’s only Seiran is a feast for the eyes. Bob once told me, “Translating English and Japanese aeronautical terms is fraught with error, and requires a Zen-like comparative analysis of what is actually being said.” My sentiments exactly. Frank McNally and Brian Mullen, also at the Smithsonian, graciously provided me access to the collection.

  At the USS Pampanito (SS 383) in San Francisco, a beautifully restored Balao-class submarine, I’d like to thank Neil Chaitin, Diane Cooper, Bill Parker (who answered my numerous questions about Balao-class submarines without complaint), and Aaron Washington.

  The U.S. military provided vital assistance to my research for this book. I am particularly grateful to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs; the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration; the National Personnel Records Center, Military Personnel Records Division, St. Louis; and the National Archives, both in Washington, D.C., and in College Park, Maryland.

  I enjoyed the full cooperation and support of the U.S. Navy. The Naval History and Heritage Command; the Naval Historical Center; and the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., were also wonderful resources, but it’s the people who make the difference, including Lt. Cdr. Suzanna Brugler, director at the Navy Office of Information in New York City; Navy Reserve Lt. Jonathan Groveman, public affairs specialist in Washington, D.C.; Wendy S. Gulley, archivist at the Submarine Force Museum, Naval Submarine Base, New London; Chris Zendan, public affairs officer, Naval Submarine Base, New London; William Kenny at the Submarine Learning Center Public Affairs Office; Jenny Erickson, public affairs and media relations specialist at the U.S. Naval Academy; Dorothea V. Abbott, librarian of special collections and archives at the U.S. Naval Academy’s Nimitz Library in Annapolis; James W. Cheevers, associate director and senior curator at the U.S. Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis; Skid Heyworth at the U.S. Naval Academy Alumni Association; J. Lloyd Abbot, Jr., president of the U.S. Naval Academy’s Class of 1939 Alumni Association; Katie Suich, public affairs specialist at the Navy Personnel Command Communications Office; and Cdr. Patrick W. McNally, public affairs officer for the Submarine Force in Norfolk, Virginia.

  Many library archives played a crucial role in helping me with my research. In particular I would like to thank Erin Kimber, information librarian, and Jill Durney, library manager, at the Macmillan Brown Library, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand; Yvonne Hudgens at the Greenwood County Library, South Carolina; the Santa Barbara Public Library in Santa Barbara, California; and the Marin and San Mateo County public library systems in California. I’d also like to thank Janis Jorgensen, manager of the Heritage Collection, and Carol Parkinson, editorial production assistant, at the U.S. Naval Institute in Annapolis.

  My agent, Jeff Kleinman at Folio Literary Management, read and responded to my book proposal within six hours of receiving it, even though he didn’t know me from Adam. That’s the longest Jeff’s ever taken to respond to something I’ve sent him. Jeff, you are my hero.

  I’d also like to thank my editor at Crown, Sean Desmond, whose sharp eye, discerning red pencil, and unquestionable good taste were crucial to shaping this book. I cooed like a baby in the hands of this professional.

  The staff at Crown who saw my book through to completion were also terrific, including editorial assistant Annie Chagnot, designer Lauren Dong, assistant editor Stephanie Knapp, production editor Christine Tanigawa, and production manager Norman Watkins. It goes without saying that I owe a deep personal thanks to Crown’s publisher, Molly Stern. God bless the lady who signs the checks.

  Finally, I am deeply grateful to the SILOE Research Institute, whose mission to study and report on unusual technologies that fail to find a wider market application despite their innovative nature continues to inspire and nourish me today.

  My apologies in advance to anyone I’ve inadvertently forgotten. As you might expect, any errors found in this book are my responsibility alone.

  NOTES

  It may seem odd that a topic with a paucity of sources has so many footnotes, but the contradictory nature of some personal accounts, combined with widespread document destruction at the end of the war, necessitates an understanding of where specific quotes, data, and tabular records of movements for the Sen-toku squadron come from. Therefore, in the interest of accurately recounting this highly unusual story, I have included as many sources I thought appropriate.

  Principal Actors

  1. Tsugio Sato, Maboroshi no Sensui Kubo [Phantom Submarine Carrier] (Tokyo: Kabushiki Gaisha Kojin-sha, 1989), p. 130.

  Chapter 1. Face-off

  1. USS Segundo (SS 398), Fifth War Patrol Report, August 15, 1945, 1305, http://​www.​segundo398.​org/​patrol_​reports/​patrol5.​pdf.

  2. Victor S. Horgan, interview by author.

 
3. Ibid.

  4. John E. Balson, interview by author.

  5. Ibid.

  6. Segundo, Fifth Patrol Report, August 19, 1945, 2313–25.

  7. Richard Binkley, interview by author.

  8. Victor S. Horgan, interview by author.

  9. Ibid.

  10. Ibid.

  11. Ibid

  12. Ibid.

  13. John E. Balson, interview by author.

  14. Clay Blair, Jr., Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War against Japan (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), p. 870.

  15. L. Rodney Johnson, interview by author.

  16. Victor S. Horgan, interview by author.

  17. Ibid.

  18. L. Rodney Johnson, interview by author.

  19. Segundo, Fifth Patrol Report, August 28, 1945, 2353.

  20. John E. Balson, interview by author; John E. Balson, interview on KXA radio, Seattle, October 27, 1945.

  21. Ibid.

  22. USS Segundo (SS 398), Fifth War Patrol Report, August 29, 1945, 0007, http://​www.​segundo398.​org/​patrol_​reports/​patrol5.​pdf.

  23. Leitch, “Chase, Capture, and Boarding.”

  24. L. Rodney Johnson, interview by author.

  25. Victor S. Horgan, interview by author.

  26. L. Rodney Johnson, interview by author.

  27. Victor S. Horgan, interview by author.

  28. Ibid.

  29. Ibid.

  30. Ibid.

  31. Segundo, Fifth War Patrol Report, August 29, 1945, 0008.

  32. John E. Balson, interview by author; John E. Balson, interview by KXA radio.

  33. Ibid.

  34. L. Rodney Johnson, interview by author; Victor S. Horgan, interview by author.

  35. L. Rodney Johnson, interview by author.

  36. John E. Balson, interview by author.

  37. Carlo M. Carlucci, interview by author.