The Mediterranean in the Ancient World
Page 45
4. This hypothesis is today discredited. (PR)
5. Minoan ships did not in fact reach Malta, Sicily or southern Italy, but Mycenaean ships did. (PR)
6. On the Peoples of the Sea, see above, note 2. (PR)
7. There is even more scepticism on this point today. (PR)
8. But we now know that life started up again there on a smaller scale and that the sites were not really abandoned until the end of the twelfth century. (PR)
5. All Change: the Twelfth to the Eighth Centuries BC
1. Rather than ‘Phoenicia’, it would be more accurate to say ‘the Phoenician cities’. (PR)
2. On these ‘invasions’ see the more recent work in P. Brun and C. Mordant, eds., Le Groupe Rhin-Suisse-France orientate et la notion des Champs d’Urnes, Nemours, 1988. (PR)
6. Colonization: the Discovery of the Mediterranean ‘Far West’ in the Tenth to Sixth Centuries BC
1. Corinth was not the only city concerned. Other cities founded colonies: Chalcis, Megara, Sparta, Colophon, Paros, Miletus and Phocaea, as the author himself points out below. (PR)
2. Nowadays, it is well established that there were several centres of production. Cf. J. Winter in Iraq, 43, 1981, pp. 101-30. (PR)
3. As in all the other Phoenician sites in the western Mediterranean. (PR)
4. See J. Desanges, Recherches sur Vactivite des Mediterraneens aux confins d’Afrique, Rome, 1978. (PR)
5. Nowadays it is not thought that the Phoenicians were the first people to mine metal in Sardinia. See Michel Gras, ‘Trafics tyrrheniens archaiques’, BEFAR, 158, Rome, 1985. (PR)
6. In fact, Greeks from Euboea were already navigating in the western Mediterranean from the eighth century BC. (PR)
7. We would not be so certain of this today: a few instances have been found atSarepta. (PR)
8. On the Phoenicians and in particular on the tophet and Carthage see Michel Gras, Pierre Rouillard and Javier Teixidor, L’Univers phenicien, Paris, 1995, znd edition. (PR)
9. Nowadays the theory that the Etruscans arrived by emigration is in fact being ousted by the notion of an indigenous formation. See D. Briquet, Les Etrusques, Paris 1993 and the catalogue of the exhibition Les Etrusques et l’Europe, Paris, 1992. (PR)
10. These excavations have now been carried out and the results published by A. Pontrandolfo and A. Rouveret, Le Tombe dipinte di Paestum, Modena, 199Z. (PR)
11. In fact Villanovan culture has already been attested in Campania in the ninth and eighth centuries BC. (PR)
12. The same is true of the Po valley as of Campania (see previous note). (PR)
13. It is no longer thought that there was any continuity between Mycenae and Greek colonial culture, rather there appears to have been a hiatus. (PR)
14. It is now thought that there were only a few voyages at this period, and we do not know at all who was responsible for them. (PR)
15. On Greek colonization in general, see Les Grecs et VOccident, Paris, 1995 and J.-L. Lamboley, Les Grecs d’Occident. La periode archai’que, Paris 1996. (PR)
16. On Marseille, see ‘Marseille grecque et la Gaule’, Etudes des Massalictes, 3, Aix-en-Provence, 1992. (PR)
17. Nowadays this point is not accepted. Until the Barcides went to Spain, the Carthaginians had little presence there. (PR)
8. The Roman Takeover of the Greater Mediterranean
1. On the Roman conquest of Gaul, see the critical view of C. Goudineau, César et la Gaule, Paris, 1990. (PR)
2. For a full discussion, see L’Art décoratif à Rome à la fin de la République et au début du Principat, Rome, 1981. (PR)
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Because of the unfinished nature of the French text, references were incomplete, usually consisting only of an author’s name and sometimes a date. The list of titles cited here has been compiled by the translator from the British Library Catalogue to 1975 as being the most likely references, but it cannot be regarded as definitive or complete.
Albertini, E., L’Empire romain (Paris, Alcan, 1929)
Albright, William Foxwell, The Archaeology of Palestine and the Bible (New York, Fleming Revell, 1932)
Aldred, Cyril, The Development of Ancient Egyptian Art from 3200 to 1313 bc (London, Tiranti, 1952)
Bailloud, G., with P. M. de Boofzheim, Les Civilisations niolithiques de laFrance dans leur contexte europeen (Paris, Picard, 1955)
Balout, Lionel, Prihistoire de l’Afrique du Nord (Paris, Arts et Metiers Graphiques, 1955)
Benda, Julien, Esquisse d’une histoire des Français dans leur volonte de formerune nation (Paris, Gallimard, 1932)
Berard, Victor, Les Pheniciens et VOdyssee (Paris, A. Colin, 1902-3) Bianchi Bandinelli, Ranuccio, Storicita dell’arte classica (Florence, Sansoni, 1943) Bittel, Kurt, Die Ruinen von Bogazkoy (Berlin, De Gruyter, 1937)
Bloch, Raymond, Les Etrusques (Paris, PUF, 1954) L’Art et la civilisation etrusques (Paris, Plon, 1955)
Bordes, Francois, Les Limons quaternaires du bassin de la Seine (Paris, Masson, 1954) Typologie du paleolithique ancien et moyen (Bordeaux, Univ. de Bordeaux, 1961)The Old Stone Age, tr. J. Anderson (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968)
Boule, Marcelin, Fossil Men: elements of human paleontology, tr. J. and J. Ritchie (Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd, 1923)
Bourdier, Franck, Prihistoire de Prance (Paris, Nouvelle bibliothèque scientifique, 1967)
Breuil, Henri, Les Hommes de la pierre ancienne (Paris, Biblioth&que scientifique, 1959)
The Men of the Old Stone Age, Paleolithic and Mesolithic, tr. B. Rafter (London, Harrap, 1965)
Carcopino, Jerdme, Les txapes de VimpeWialisme romain (Paris, 1961)
Carpenter, Rhys, Beyond the Pillars of Hercules: the classical world
seen through the eyes of its discoverers (New York, Delacorte Press, 1966)
Ceram C. W., The World of Archaeology (London, Collins, 1968)
Cintas, Pierre, ‘Fouilles puniques f Tipasa’, Revue africaine (Algiers, 1949)
Childe, Gordon, The Bronze Age (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1930)
Coon, Carleton Steven, The Origin of Races (London, Cape, 1963)
Croiset, Alfred and Maurice, Histoire de la litterature grecque (Paris, 1887-93)
Desborough, Vincent, The Last Mycenaeans and Their Successors: an archaeological survey c. 1100-1000 bc (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964)
Dussaud, Rene, Les Civilisations pré-helleniques dans le bassin de la Merd’Agie (Paris, 1914)
Effenterre, Henri van, La Crete et le monde grec (Paris, Bibliotheque des Ecoles Franchises d’Ath&nes et de Rome, 1948)
Evans, John Davies, The Prehistoric Antiquities of the Maltese Islands: a survey (London, Athlone Press, 1971) Malta (London, Thames & Hudson, 1950)
Farrington, Benjamin, Aristotle, Founder of Scientific Philosophy (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1965)
Gaudemet, Jean, Institutions de Vantiquiti (Paris, 1967)
Gautier, Emile-Felix, Le Passé de l’Afrique du Nord (Paris, Payot, 1964)
Gernet, Louis, Droit et pré-droit en Grice ancienne (Paris, Annee sociologique, 1948-9)
Anthropologie de la Grece antique (Paris, 1968)
Grenier, Albert, Les Religions itrusque et romaine (Paris, 1948)
Grimal, Pierre, Dans les pas des Cisars (Paris, 1955) La Vie a Rome dans Vantiquiti (Paris, PUF, 1971)
Grousset, Rene, De la Grice a la Chine (Monaco, 1948) L’Empire des Steppes (Paris, 1939)
Heichelheim, F. M., A History of the Roman People (Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1961)
An Ancient Economic History, tr. Stevens (Leiden, Sijthoff, 1958)
Heurgon, Jacques, La Vie quotidienne des Etrusques (Paris, Hachette, 1961) Daily Life of the Etruscans, tr. J. Kirkup (London, Weidenfeld &C Nicolson, 1964)
Hrozny, Bedrich (Frederic), Code hittite, transcription et traduction française (Paris, 1922)
Hubert, Henri, Les Celtes depuis Vepoque de la Tene et la civilisation celtique (Paris, 1932)
The Greatness and Decline of the
Celts, ed. M. Mauss (London, Kegan Paul, 1934)
Kirk, G. E., A Short History of the Middle East (London, Methuen, 1948)
Koyre, Alexandre, Etudes d’histoire de la pensee scientifique (Paris, Cahiers des Annales 19, 1961)
Kramer, Samuel Noah, History Begins at Sumer (London, Thames 8t Hudson, 1958)
Levi-Strauss, Claude, Tristes tropiques, tr. J. and D. Weightman (London, Cape, 1973)
Lot, Ferdinand, La Fin du monde antique et le debut du moyen age (Paris, 1927)
Lucas, J. V., The End of Atlantis (London, 1969)
Ludwig, Emil, On Mediterranean Shores (Am Mittelmeer), tr. E. Paul (Boston, Little, Brown, 1929)
Mason, Stephen Finney, A History of the Sciences: main currents of scientific thought (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953)
Meyer, Eduard, Geschichte des Altertums (Basel, 1953-8)
Morenz, S., Egyptian Religion (Agyptische Religion, i960), tr. A. Keep (London, Methuen, 1973) Moscati, Sabatino, // Mondo del Fenici (Milan, 1966)
The World of the Phoenicians, tr. A. Hamilton (London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968)
Nougier, Louis Rene, Geographie humaine prehistorique (Paris, 1959)
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, Science and the Common Understanding, Reith Lectures (London, Oxford University Press, 1953)
Picard, G. ‘A travers les musees et sites de l’Afrique du Nord’, Revue archeologique, 6 (1947)
Piganiol, A., Essai sur les origines de Rome (Paris, 1917)
Planhol, X. de, De la plaine pamphylienne aux lacs pisidans. Nomadisme et vie paysanne (Paris, 1958)
Posener, G., Dictionnaire de la civilisation igyptienne (Paris, 1959) A Dictionary of Egyptian Civilization, tr. A. McFarlane (London, Methuen, 1961)
Przyluski, Jean, L’Evolution humaine (Paris, 1942)
Rougier, Louis, he Ginie de l’Occident. Essai sur la formation d’une mentalite (Paris, Laffont, 1969) Schaeffer, Claude, Mission de Ras-Shamra (Paris, 1936)
Seele, Keith and Steindorff, Georg, When Egypt Ruled the East (London, 1957)
Selincourt, Aubrey de, The World of Herodotus (London, Seeker & Warburg, 1962)
Smith, William S., Interconnections in the Ancient Near East: a study of the relationships between the arts of Egypt, the Aegean and Western Asia (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1965)
Stekelis, Moshe, Les Monuments migalithiques de Palestine (Paris, 1935) Vallet, Georges, Rhegion et Zancle. Histoire, commerce et civilisation des
citis chalcidiennes du ditroit de Messine (Paris, 1958)
Varagnac, Andre and Deroloz, R., Les Celtes et les Germains (Paris, 1965)
Vernant, J.-P., Les Origines de la pensee grecque (Paris, 1962)
Vieyra, Maurice, Les Assyriens (Paris, 1961)
Vita-Finzi, Claudio, The Mediterranean Valleys (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1969)
Weber, Alfred, Kulturgeschichte als Kultursoziologie (Leiden, 1935)
Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Ulrich von, Griechische Verskunst (Berlin, 1921)
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Index
Page references in italics refer to illustrations in the text.
Adad (the god) 167
Adonis (the god) 2x4, 226
Adriatic Sea 36, 41, 46, 250-51, 254-5
Aegean Sea 36, 94, 244, 264
shipping 97, 99, 100
Smyrna 244-5
Aeschylus 274
Africa 16, 34, 35, 36, 314, 217
archaeological sites 30
see also individual countries Africa, North 30, 32, 40-41, 190-92, 217-19, 312
see also Carthage Africa, South 39
Agathocles 227-8
agricultural development 47, 48-59, 65, 67, 70-71, 191
domesticated animals 47-8, 50, 55, 70, 71, 162
importance of 26-7
ploughs/ploughing 70-71
see also irrigation; technological advances agricultural implements 50
see also tools, use of agricultural societies 15, 18, 20, 21, 41, 48-59, 60, 162
Greece as 247-8
pastoral 34, 47, 162-4
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 344
Ahiram, king of Byblos 199
Akhenaten see Amenophis IV, pharaoh
Akkadian language 166, 169, 170
Akkadian people 169
Albright, W. F. 185, 207
Alcaeus 18
Alcibiades 274
Alcmaeonidae family 268, 272, 290
Aldred, Cyril 84
Alexander the Great 208, 221-2, 223, 277-9, 280-84
Alexandria 298-300, 302
Aiin, Per 174
Al-Mina 246, 264
alluvial mud 19-20, 34, 61, 65
alphabets 246, 264
invention of 197-9
see also language; writing Alps 14, 328, 329
Amanus Mountains 74
Armana see Tell el-Armarna Amazon, river 44, 46
Amenophis III, pharaoh 121, 154
Amenophis IV, pharaoh 121, 156-7
the Americas 50, 214, 215
Amon Ra (the god) 86
Amorite people 169
Anatolia 51, 150, 165, 172-3, 184, 187, 188
trade/traders 53-4
see also Belbasi; Catal Hoyük Anaxagoras of Clazomenae 273, 291, 296
Anaximander 289, 290, 291
Anaximenes 289
Antiochus III, Seleucid king 321-2, 334
Antony (Mark Antony) 325, 326, 333
Anu (the god) 89
Apennines 14, 235, 236, 309
Apollo (the god) 226-7
Apollonius of Perge 299
Apollonius of Tyana 3 54
Appian 224
Arab peoples 170
Arados, island 216
Aramaean people 169, 170, 184, 185
archaeological surveys 26-59, 102-3, 114-15, 150, 253
chronologies 28, 29-31, 33, 36, 50
climate change 20, 33-5, 37, 46
megaliths, spread of 103-12
radio-carbon dating 28, 41, 50
Archidamus, king of Sparta 276
Archimedes 299, 300
Aristarchus 299, 300
Aristophanes 18
Aristotle of Stagira 223, 288, 291, 295, 297-8, 299, 302
Mechanics 297
Meteorology 297
Armenia 158, 159, 163, 184
armies:
Assyrian 186
cavalry 190, 282-3
Egyptian 123-4
Greek 269-71, 282-3
mercenaries 142, 178, 191, 219, 248, 313, 317
Persian 190
Roman 306, 309, 311, 321-2, 327 see also naval power; weapons/warfare
JDEX
art: architecture 304-5, 344-5
carvings 40
cave paintings 34, 35, 41, 42-3, 44-6,
45
Cretan 147-8
development of 38, 40-46, 127, 189
Egyptian 66-7, 157
Etruscan 233, 240-42
figurines 41, 129
frescoes 146-7, 150-51
Greek 180, 189, 233, 236, 274-5
human form in 41, 57
mural paintings 13
official 274-5
paleolithic 40-46, 45
portraits 346
rock paintings 191
Roman 343, 350-51
sacred j6, 57, 346
sculpture 57, 343-4, 346
style 153-4, 166-7
see also crafts; culture Artaxerxes 281
Asctepsios/Aesculapius (the god) 226-7
Asia Minor 27, 36, 94, 158, 288
Greek colonies 244-5
Hittite civilization 13, 113, 155, 160, 164, 165-7, 171, 172-3, 179, 196
immigrants 159, 160, 164, 231
see also Middle East Assur (the god) 89
Assurbanipal, king of Assyria ior, 216
Assyria 89, 101, 185-6, 187, 188, 202, 216
Nineveh 186
Astarte (the goddess) 155-6, 226, 228-9
astronomy 214, 288, 289, 291, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300
see also navigation Aten (the god) 156
Athena (the goddess) 267, 269, 273
Athens 250, 258, 261, 263, 264, 265, 267, 269, 272-3, 275, 276, 284, 299, 301-3, 323-4
Atlantic Ocean 13, 22, 94, 218, 255
Attalus III, king of Pergamum 319
Attis (the goddess) 3 54
St Augustine 218
Augustus Caesar 319, 324, 326, 332, 342, 344, 347-8, 349
Aurelian, emperor of Rome 352
Aurignac culture 41
Australopithecus 29
Austria 41
Baal (the god) 155-6, 167, 225, 226, 227
Baalat (the goddess) 226
Babylon 186, 216, 288, 289, 290
Bahrain 76, 82
Bailloud, G. 111 Balearic islands 109, 214
the Balkans 32, 41, 194
Bandinelli, R. Bianchi 345, 347, 349
banking system 119
see also economic structure Barca, Hamilcar 227, 313-14
Barcidae family 227
barter 31, 119, 219-20
see also currency Basch, Almagro 197
Battos of Cyrene 243
Bedouin people 167-8
Balbasi 40, 41
Bes (the god) 86
Bitter Lake 97
Black Sea 36, 250, 263, 320, 327
Nahal Mishmar cave 76
Bloch, Raymond 230
boats/ships 62-3, 90-103
biremes 101
bitumen caulking 215-16
design/construction 91, 92-3, 94, 97-101, 102, 117, 254, 271, 312-13
longships 99-101
oarsmen 98, 99
quinquerimes 312-13
river craft 90-93, 95-6
sails 91, 92, 93, 96, 98-9, 117
seafaring 90-91, 93-103, 117
speed of 154
timber for 93, 101
triremes 271, 312
warships 99-100, 180, 202, 312-13
see also sea trade/traders books 238-9
Bordes, F. 39
Borges, J.-L. 273
Boule, Marcelin 39
Brazil 50
Brennus (the Gaul) 309
Breuil, Abbe 94
Briquel, D:
Les Etrusques 38in9
British Isles (Cassiterides) 193, 218