by James Walvin
Jennifer Jensen Wallach, How America Eats – A Social History of US Food and Culture, Lanham, Maryland, 2013
James Walvin, Crossings – Africa, the Americas and the Atlantic Slave Trade, London, 2013
David Watts, The West Indies – Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change since 1492, Cambridge, 1987
Barbara Ketcham Wheaton, Savoring the Past: the French Kitchen and Table from 1300–1789, London, 1983
Bee Wilson, First Bite – How We Learn to Eat, London, 2015
Wendy A. Woloson, Refined Tastes – Sugar, Confectionery and Consumers in Nineteenth-Century America, Baltimore, 2002
John Yudkin, Pure, White and Deadly, London, 1972
Numbered References
Introduction – Sugar in Our Time
1 International Business Review, 5 September 2016
2 Sugar Reduction: The Evidence for Action, Public Health England, London, October 2016
I – A Traditional Taste
1 Hattie Ellis, ‘Honey’, in The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, Darra Goldstein, ed., New York, 2015, pp. 336–340
2 Rachel Laudan, Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History, Los Angeles, 2013, pp. 136–138
3 Nawal Nasrallah, ‘Islam’, in The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 361–362
4 Rachel Laudan, Cuisine and Empire: Cooking in World History, Los Angeles, 2013, p. 143
5 Sidney Mintz, ‘Time, Sugar and Sweetness’, in Food and Culture – A Reader, Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik, eds, London 1997, p. 358
6 Tsugitaka Sato, Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam, Boston, 2015, p. I
7 Tsugitaka Sato, Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam, p. 7
8 Tsugitaka Sato, Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam, p. 3
9 Tsugitaka Sato, Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam, pp. 9–10
10 Peter Brears, Cooking and Dining in Medieval England, London, 2008, p. 343
11 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice Grocers and Groceries in Provincial England, 1650–1830, Oxford, 2012. p. 30
12 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar – A Bittersweet History, London, 2009, p. 20
13 Joan Thirsk, Food in Early Modern England – Phases, Fads, Fashions, 1500–1/60, London, 2007, pp. 10, 324–325
14 Peter Brears, Cooking and Dining in Medieval England, p. 27
15 Peter Brears, Cooking and Dining in Medieval England, pp. 344, 379–380, 453–457
16 Peter Brears, Cooking and Dining in Medieval England, pp. 453–457
17 Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power – The Place of Sugar in Modern History, London, 1985, p. 88
18 Ivan Day, ‘Sugar Sculptures’, The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 689–693
19 Barbara Ketham Wheaton, Savoring the Past: the French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 178p, London, 1989, pp. 18–21
20 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, p. 25
21 Barbara Ketham Wheaton, Savoring the Past, pp. 183–184
22 Barbara Ketham Wheaton, Savoring the Past, pp. 51–52
23 Barbara Ketham Wheaton, Savoring the Past, p. 186
24 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar –A Bittersweet History, p. 22
25 Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power pp. 90–91
26 Ivan Day, ‘Sugar Sculptures’, The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, p. 691
27 Ivan Day, ‘Sugar Sculptures’, The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 692
28 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, pp. 26–27: 30: 56
29 Gervase Markham, The English Housewife: Containing the Inward and Outward Virtues Which Ought to Be in a Complete Woman, 1616, edited by Michael R. Best, Montreal, 1986 edition
30 Gervase Markham, The English Housewife, Michael R. Best, ed. pp. 72–74, 81–86, 93–94, 103
31 Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind – A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present, London, 1997, pp. 92–103
32 Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, p. 97
33 Colin Spence, British Food: An Extraordinary Thousand Years of History, London, 2002, pp. 48–49; Penelope Hunting, A History of the Society of Apothecaries, London, 1988, pp. 18–19
34 Pierre Pomet, A complete history of drugs. Written in French by Monsieur Pomet. Chief Druggist to the late French King Lewis XIV, London, 1748, pp. 56–60
2 – The March of Decay
1 Stephen Alforp, ‘On a Par with Nixon’, London Review of Books, 17 November 2016, p. 40; Gervase Markham, The English Housewife (1631), Michael R. Best, ed., pp. xxvi, xxxviii, xlii.
2 The Italian Tribune, 11 November 2015; The Daily Telegraph, 30 September 2016
3 See studies by W. J. Moore and E. Elizabeth Corbett, in Caries Research, Klaus G. Konig, ed., vol. 5 1971; vol. 7 1973; vol. 9 1975 and vol. 10 1976. Thanks to Dr Adam Middleton for providing these articles.
4 Neil Walter Kerr, Dental Caries, Periodontal Disease and Dental Attrition – Their Role in Determining the Life of Human Dentition in Britain over the Last Three Millennia, Thesis for Doctorate of Medicine, University of Aberdeen, 1999, p. 121
5 The Smithsonian, 7 October 2015
6 Colin Jones, The Smile Revolution in Eighteenth Century Paris, Oxford, 2014, pp. 9, 17–21, 116
7 Few contemporaries were more troubled by rotting teeth than George Washington. His various dentures offer evidence of his lifetime’s struggle to mask his collapsing facial features. His dentures are on display at his home at Mount Vernon, Virginia.
8 B. W. Higman, A Concise History of the Caribbean, Cambridge, 2011, p. 104
9 Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800, London, 1967, pp. 186–188.
10 The Times, 20 March 2015
11‘Sharp increase in children admitted to hospital for tooth extract due to decay’, News and Events, Royal College of Surgeons, 26 February 2016
12 Press Release, ‘Tooth decay among 5-year-olds continues significant decline,’ Public Health England, 10 May 2016
3 – Sugar and Slavery
1 Stuart B. Schwarz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society, Bahia, 1550–1835, Cambridge, 1985, pp. 7–9. An arroba = c. 35lb, making a total of 700,000 lb
2 Stuart Schwarz, Sugar Plantations, p. 13
3 James Walvin, Crossings – Africa, the Americas and the Atlantic Slave Trade, London, 2013, pp. 35–37
4 Stuart B. Schwarz, Sugar Plantations, p. 14
5 David Eltis and David Richardson, The Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, New Haven, 2010, Table 6, p. 202
6 Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic, Oxford, 1988 edn, p. 116; Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power, p. 45; Fernand Braudel, The Wheels of Commerce, London 1982, p. 193
7 Stuart B. Schwarz, Sugar Plantations, pp. 16–22
8 B. W. Higman, A Concise History, pp. 97–98
9 B. W Higman, A Concise History, pp. 102–105
10 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas, Table 6, p. 201
11 For an excellent account, see B. W. Higman, A Concise History, Chapter 4, ‘The Sugar Revolution’.
4 – Environmental Impact
1 Quoted in David Watts, The West Indies, Cambridge, 1987, p. 78
2 B. W. Higman, A Concise History, pp. 49–53
3 Quoted in David Watts, The West Indies, p. 78
4 David Watts, The West Indies, pp. 184–186
5 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas, Table 6, p. 200
6 David Watts, The West Indies, pp. 219–223
7 B. W Higman, Jamaica Surveyed, Kingston, 1988, pp. 8–16
8 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas, Table 6, p. 200
9 Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados – 1673, p. 46.
10 B. W Higman, A Concise History, p. 164
11 B. W Higman, A Concise History, p. 99
5 – Shopping for Sugar
1 Katheryn A. Morrison, English Shops and Shopping, New Haven, 2003, p. 5; Jon Stobart, Spend, Spend, Spend – A History of Shopping, Stroud, 2008, p. 24
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2 Jon Stobart, Spend, pp. 25–26
3 Katheryn A. Morrison, English Shops, p. 5
4 Jon Stobart, Spend, p. 28
5 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, pp. 30–31
6 Katheryn A. Morrison, English Shops, p. 80
7 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, pp. 26–27, 56
8 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, p. 114
9 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, pp. 72–73
10 James Walvin, The Quakers – Money and Morals, London, 1997
11 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, p. 118
12 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, pp. 170–173
13 York Courant, 7 January 1766. (My thanks to Dr Sylvia Hogarth for this reference.)
14 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, p. 220
15 Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice, pp. 194–198
16 Catalogue du Musée de la Sociétié de Pharmacie du Canton de Genève, n.d. (Wellcome Library, London.)
17 James Walvin, Slavery in Small Things – Slavery and Modem Cultural Habits, Chichester, 2017, Chapter 1
6 – A Perfect Match for Tea and Coffee
1 The Cambridge World History of Food, Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas, eds, 2 vols, Cambridge, 2010, 1, p. 647
2 Markman Ellis, Richard Coulton, Matthew Mauger, Empire of Tea – The Asian Leaf that Conquered the World, London, 2015, p. 26
3 Markman Ellis, et al., Empire of Tea, pp. 43–46
4 Markman Ellis, et al., Empire of Tea, p. 56
5 Markman Ellis, et al., Empire of Tea, p. 120
6 Kelley Graham, Gone to the Shops: Going Shopping in Victorian England, London, 2008, p. 72
7 Quoted in Markman Ellis, et al, Empire of Tea, p. 187
8 Rachel Laudan, Cuisine and Empire – Cooking in World History, Los Angeles, 2015, p. 229
9 Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power, pp. 112–114
10 B.W. Higman, A Concise History, p. 104
11 Vic Gatrell, The First Bohemians, London, 2014 edn, p. 178
12 Markman Ellis, The Coffee House – A Cultural History, London, 2004, pp. 79–81
13 Fernand Braudel, Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800, London,1967, pp. 186–188
14 Markman Ellis, The Coffee House, pp. 202–203
15 Andrew F. Smith, Drinking History, New York, 2013, p. 235
16 Jennifer Jensen Wallach, How America Eats –A Social History of US Food and Culture, Lanham, Maryland, 2013, pp. 48–49
17 Andrew F. Smith, Drinking History, p. 235
18 Richard J. Hooker, Food and Drink in America – A History, New York, 1981, p. 130
19 Andrew F. Smith, Drinking History, p. 235–236
20 Steven C. Topik, ‘Coffee’, in Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas, eds, The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2002, vol. I, pp. 644–647
21 Steven C. Topik, ‘Coffee’, The Cambridge World History of Food, pp. 646–647
22 Linda Civitello, Cuisine and Culture, Hoboken, 2008, p. 215
23 Richard J. Hooker, Food and Drink, p. 201
24 Richard Follett, The Sugar Masters: Plantations and Slaves in Louisiana’s Cane World, 1820–1860, Baton Rouge, 2005, pp. 20–21
25 Harvey Levenstein, Revolution at the Table: the Transformation of the American Diet, New York, 1988, pp. 256–257, n. 2
7 – Pandering to the Palate
1 Rachel Laudan, Cuisine and Empire, pp. 185–186
2 David Gentilcore, Food and Health in Early Modern Europe – Diet, Medicine and Society, 1450–1800, London, 2015, p. 175
3 Jane Levi, ‘Dessert’, The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 211–222
4 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar, pp. 42–49
5 B. W. Higman, How Food Made History, pp. 169–172
6 Markman Ellis, et ai, Empire of Tea, Chapter 9
7 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar, pp. 65–66
8 Sidney Mintz, Sweetness and Power, p. 64
9 Carole Shammas, The Pre-Industrial Consumer in England and America, Oxford, 1990, pp. 62–66
10 Jessica B. Harris, ‘Molasses’, in The Oxford Companion to Sugar, P- 459
8 – Rum Makes Its Mark
1 Richard Foss, ‘Rum’, Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, pp. 581–582
2 Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum – A Social and Economic History, Gainesville, Florida, 2005, pp. 12–15
3 Matthew Parker, The Sugar Barons – Family, Corruption, Empire and War, London, 2011, pp. 82–87
4 Kenneth Morgan, Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the 18th Century, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 97–98, 185
5 Roger Norman Buckley, The British Army in the West Indies – Society and Military in the Revolutionary War, Gainesville, 1998, pp. 284–285
6 Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum, p. 21
7 Richard Hough, Captain James Cook –A Biography, London, 1994, p. 67
8 Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum, p. 28
9 Jacob M. Price, ‘The Imperial Economy’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. II, P. J. Marshall, ed., p. 90
10 Thomas Bartlett, ‘Ireland and the British Empire’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. II, P J. Marshall, ed., p. 257
11 Wendy A. Woloson, Refined Tastes – Sugar, Confectionery and Consumers in Nineteenth Century America, Baltimore, 2002, pp. 17, 23–26
12 Wendy Woloson, Refined Tastes, p. 5
13 Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum, pp. 29–30
14 Thanks to James Axtell for this point.
15 Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum, pp. 76–81 ; Andrew F. Smith, Drinking History, pp. 26–28
16 Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum, pp. 81–86; B. W. Higman, Slave Populations and Economy in Jamaica, p. 21
17 A. G. L. Shaw, Convicts and Colonies, London, 1966, pp. 66–68; Charles Bateson, The Convict Ships, 1787–1868, Glasgow, 1959, pp. 66–67
18 Deidre Coleman, ed., Maiden Voyages and Infant Colonies, London, 1999, p. 126
19 David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas, Cambridge, 2000 , pp. 127–128; Frederick H. Smith, Caribbean Rum, p. 99
20 Michael Craton and James Walvin, A Jamaican Plantation – Worthy Park, 1670–1970, London, 1970, p. 136
9 – Sugar Goes Global
1 Paul Dickson, ‘Combat Food’, in Andrew F. Smith, The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, New York, 2007, pp. 141–142
2 British Army Rations, Vestey Foods. At https://worldwarsupplies.co.uk; accessed 5 April 2016
3 US Populations 1776 to Present – https://fusiontables.google.com
4 P. Lynn Kennedy and Won W. Koo, eds, Agricultural Trade Policies in the New Millennium, New York, 2006, p. 156
5 B. W. Higman, How Food Made History, Chichester, 2012, pp. 67–68
6 James Walvin, Atlas of Slavery, London, 2006, p. 123
7 P. Lynn Kennedy and Won W. Koo, eds., Agricultural Trade Policies, P. 157
10 – The Sweetening of America
1 Harvey Levenstein, Revolution at the Table, pp. 3 2–3 3
2 Richard Sutch and Susan B. Carter, eds., Historical Statistics of the United States, Cambridge, 2006, pp. 553–555
3 Harvey Levenstein, Revolution at the Table, pp. 3 2–3 3
4 Jennifer Jensen Wallach, How America Eats, p. 71
5 Linda Civitello, Cuisine and Culture, p. 210
6 Reginal Horsman, Feast or Famine – Food and Drink in American Westward Expansion, Columbia, Missouri, 2000, p. 302
7 ‘Wedding Cakes’, The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, Andrew F. Smith, ed., p. 618
8 ‘Fruit Preserves’, in Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, p. 282
9 Jennifer Jensen Wallach, How America Eats, p. 100
10 Andrew F. Smith, Pure Ketchup – A History of America’s National Condiment, Columbia, South Carolina, Ch. 3
11 Jennifer Jensen Wallach, How America Eats, pp. 101–104
11 – Power Shifts in the New World
1 Michael Duffy, Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower, Oxford, 1987, PP- 7–13
/> 2 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar, pp. 180–181
3 B. W. Higman, A Concise History, p. 166
4 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar, pp. 181–183
5 Ronald Findlay and Kevin H. O’Rourke, Power and Plenty, Princeton, 2007, pp. 366–369
6 Franklyn Stewart Harris, The Sugar Beet in America, New York, 1919, Chapter II
7 Quoted in Gail M. Hollander, Raising Cane in the ’Glades: the Global Sugar Trade and the Transformation of Florida, Chicago, 2008, p. 46
8 Richard Follett, The Sugar Masters, pp. 30–31
9 Richard Follett, The Sugar Masters, p. 24
10 Richard Follett, The Sugar Masters, p. 27
11 William Ivey Hair, Bourbonism and Agricultural Protest – Louisiana Politics, 1877–1900, Baton Rouge, 1969, pp. 38–39
12 A. B. Gilmore, ‘Louisiana Sugar Manual’, New Orleans, 1920, Table 1; Fargo, N.D.
13 David Eltis and David Richardson, Atlas, p. 202
14 James Walvin, Crossings, pp. 185–187
15 James Walvin, Crossings, p. 204
16 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar, pp. 273–280
17 Alfred Eichner, The Emergence of Oligarchy – Sugar Refining as a Case Study, Baltimore, 1966, pp. 339–342
18 Cesar J. Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom: The Plantation Economy of the Spanish Caribbean, Chapel Hill, 1999, p. 3; April Merleaux, Sugar and Civilisation –American Empire and the Cultural Politics of Sweetness, Chapel Hill, 2015
19 Jacob Adler, Claus Speckels, The Sugar King in Hawaii, Honolulu, 1966
20 Jacob Adler, Claus Spreckels, The Sugar King, p. 205
21 Elizabeth Abbott, Sugar, Chapter 10
22 Cesar J. Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom
23 Cesar J. Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom, p. 5
24 Maxey Robson Dickson, The Food Front in World War /, Washington DC, 1944, pp. 11–12, 25
25 Maxey Robson Dickson, The Food Front, pp. 148–149
26 Maxey Robson Dickson, The Food Front, p. 149
27 Maxey Robson Dickson, The Food Front, pp. 150–151
28 Cindy Hahamovitch, No Mans Land : Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor, Princeton, 2011, p. 138
29 Cindy Hahamovitch, No Mans Land, p. 13 8
30 Cindy Hahamovitch, No Mans Land, p. 139
31 Cindy Hahamovitch, No Mans Land, p. 141
32 Cindy Hahamovitch, No Man’s Land, p. 142
33 Cindy Hahamovitch, No Mans Land, pp. 3–7